SPAU 3345 Neural Basis of Communication Lecture Notes PDF

SPAU 3345 Neural Basis of Communication Tuesday, January 21, 2025 Course Intro and Overview of the Ner...

SPAU 3345 Neural Basis of Communication Tuesday, January 21, 2025 Course Intro and Overview of the Nervous System Syllabus Notes Overview of the Nervous System Key Concepts: similar Two sides of the brain are ________________, but not __________ mirror images Sensory & motor functions are represented in __________________ both hemispheres Communication and cognition processes differ ↳ sensory : touching something motor : motor control Organizational Views of the Nervous System Structures Anatomical: Grouping the nervous system by ________________ ↳ cells lobes , , nerves , ganglia function Functional: Grouping of the nervous system by _______________ ↳ motor control , language sensory, Central vs. Peripheral Nervous System Central nervous system (CNS): brain, brainstem, and spinal cord Protected by _____________ Dony encasing < skull , vertabrae Brain inside cranium & Spinal cord inside _______________ · Spinal canal created by vertebral column Made up on neurons and supportive cells Gray matter: ____________________________ cell bodies process information , y Brain: makes up the outer surface called the _________ cortex and neuron cell several deep structures called nuclei bodies Gyrus (gyri) Upper part Sulcus (sulci) depression point Spinal o - White matter: axons, carry signals to other neurons/structures Axons often insulated with ________, creating the whitish color gray myelin ⑧ Organization flipped in the spinal cord matter is on inside instead of outside Peripheral nervous system (PNS): nerves extending outward from brainstem and spinal ↳ cord collection of neurons 12 _____ cranial nerves 31 _____ pairs of spinal nerves nervous system Not protected by tissue or a body structure TO O Away body S  SPAU 3345 Neural Basis of Communication Tuesday, January 21, 2025 Course Intro and Overview of the Nervous System Instructions: Groups of 4 will rotate through each of the following 9 stations. You will be at each station for 5 minutes. During that time, review the information and illustrations, filling in the boxes using provided resources. All images from Blake, M. L. & Hoepner, J.K. (2023). Clinical Neuroscience for Communication Disorders: Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology. San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing. Station 1: Functional Organization of the Peripheral Nervous System Figure 1.5 sympathetic freeze" "fight flight , , or autonomic unconscious control of body systems parasympathetic Peripheral "return to rest" nervous system somatic Conducts sensorimotor signals Voluntary control of body Autonomic Nervous System: Responsible for unconscious control of body systems G Sympathetic NS: prepares body for “fight, flight, or freeze” So Excites the body ↑ S Parasympathetic NS: “rest and digest” Returns body to baseline once crisis passed & Dampens response to stimulation - Energy saving: heart deceleration, etc. S Somatic Nervous System: Innervates skeletal muscle · Conducts signals about body sensation and movement S Station 2: Brain Lobes Frontal Lobe 1. higher level cognition 2. initiates signals for motor movement 3. basic expressive language Parietal Lobe 1. processes sensory information 2. involved in attention, body schema, visual Figure 1-6 processing 3. language processing for reading and writing Temporal Lobe 1. language comprehension 2. regions for memory, visual processing, and olfactory (smell) processing  SPAU 3345 Neural Basis of Communication Tuesday, January 21, 2025 Course Intro and Overview of the Nervous System Occipital Lobe 1. receives visual signals Station 3: Other Structures Basal Ganglia: Formed of deep nuclei (ganglia) and extensively connected to motor and sensory systems. Thalamus: Acts as a sensory relay station. Highly interconnected with brainstem, cerebellum, and cortex. Cerebellum: Involved in coordination of muscles, body equilibrium, and connects to language and cognitive systems. Located posterior to the brainstem. Basal Ganglia: Composed of the midbrain, pons, and medulla. Connects the brain to the spinal cord. Brainstem: thalamus Midbrain: Figure 1-33 Pons: midbrain pons Medulla oblongata: medulla Station 4: Surface Landmarks Sagittal sulcus Figure 1-21 Sagittal sulcus (longitudinal fissure): Separates R and L hemispheres Central sulcus: Separates FRONTAL and PARIETAL lobes Pre-central gyrus = anterior to Central sulcus central gyrus post-central gyrus Post-central gyrus = posterior to central sulcus Sylvian fissure (lateral sulcus): Separates temporal lobe from frontal + parietal lobes Figure 1-22 Insula (just under the surface): Cortex deep in the Sylvian fissure fissure Sylvian  SPAU 3345 Neural Basis of Communication Tuesday, January 21, 2025 Course Intro and Overview of the Nervous System Station 5: Medial Surfaces Cingulate gyrus: part of the limbic system, involved in _______________________ emotions a memory Cingulate gyrus Corpus callosum: massive white matter tract connecting ______________________ righta hemisphere left corpus callosum Calcarine sulcus: landmark in occipital lobe Thalamus: Acts as a ________________ sensory relaystation and highly interconnected with ___________________________ brainstem , Cerebellum , cortex Hypothalamus: part of the limbic system, involved in Figure 1-24 regulating __________________ body systems hypothalamus thalamus Station 6: Neurons and Cytoarchitecture dendrites Soma – cell body; contains nucleus & organelles Dendrites – receiver (afferent); can have one or many Axon – sender (efferent); each neuron has only 1, but can branch into Soma collaterals Ends in the axon terminal, or terminal bouton Axon structure created by microtubules, microfilaments & neurofilaments Synapse – point of communication between axon terminal & other structure (e.g., neuron, muscle, gland) Cell Membranes axon Cell membranes contain ion channels Ions (charged particles) can passively move in/out of neuron axon through channels terminals Ions can be pushed in/out of neurons through ion pumps Neurotransmitter receptors Figure 1-15 Neurotransmitters (chemicals that convey signals in the nervous system) Bind to receptors causing changes to the ion channels to allow ions in/out of the cell Synaptic Cleft Region between pre- and postsynaptic neurons Cytoarchitecture 6 _______ layers of neuron cell bodies in the cortex Layers have different connections and general functions Figure 1-8 Brodmann’s areas (BA) represent different cellular organization; are roughly associated with different functions  SPAU 3345: Neural Basis of Communication Thurs, Jan 23, 2025 Ch. 2 Ventricular System: Cranium, Ventricle, and Meninges Announcements/To-Dos: Purpose of Ventricular and Meningeal Systems communication CNS 1) protection 2) Support 3) facilitating protection , but also potential from bony projections damage of Why discuss? Disruption to the CNS protective mechanisms can have significant ↳ A. Cranial Fossa the cranial fossa impacts. hematomas hydrocephalus meningitis , , Fig 2-2 Regions of the internal skull Foramen Magnum: where spinal cord exits skull B. Meningeal Layers Functions: Magnam 1. CNs protection Foramen exit point from into brainstern Spinal cord 2. hold structures in place Fig 2-5 Scalp Layers (outer to inner) Skull 1. Dura Mater thick ↓IPeriostateFan I layered I , As meninges Periosteal layer louter) adheres tightly to cranium spinal column arachnoid layer at pia mater Meningeal layer Cerebral cortex Sinus spaces Spots where the periosteal and meningeal dural layers separate Creates dural sinus spaces for the meningeal veins  SPAU 3345: Neural Basis of Communication Thurs, Jan 23, 2025 EX: Superior sagittal sinus the meninges in spaces not that are typically Potential spaces related to the dura I present blood · can Upon pool injury in the spaces ___________________ not normally open pathology (tears meningeal arteries Open in ______________________ in Epidural space: space superficial to dura mater Subdural space: space beneath dura (between dura and arachnoid/pia) blood Hematomas pooling of Epidural hematoma _____________________ meningeal artery tears Blood pools between __________________________________ Skull and dura mater Subdural hematoma Blood pools between ___________________________________ L dura mater and arachnoid mater cortical tissue Blood contacts ________________________________ easily ↓ Management focuses on reducing movement and external S stimulation to minimize blood spread Major infoldings of the dura the L and R hemispheres 1. Falx cerebri – separates __________________________ cerebellar hemispheres 2. Falx cerebelli – separates ____________________ cerebellum from cerebrum above 3. Tentorium cerebelli – separates _____________________________ ↳ runs horizontally 2. Arachnoid Mater thin webby _________________________ , Arachnoid trabeculae pillars > - verticle connective a Creates physical space for arteries and cerebrospinal fluid flow Space called ____________________ Subarachnoid space 3. Pia Mater inner most layer Adheres to the brain and spinal cord surface transparent , delicate  SPAU 3345: Neural Basis of Communication Thurs, Jan 23, 2025 C. Ventricular System Ventricles lateral Fig 2-6a Lateral ventricles ventricle body Braintricle a- Third ventricle Fourth ventricle & foramen cerebraa lateral 4th ventricle ventricle Fig 2-6b temporal norn Spinal canal Interacies 3rd ventricle +h 4 ventricle foramen Spinal of Lushka canal replenished figure 2-7 completely Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF) > - 7 hrs. every ependymal Produced by specialized _________________ cells called choroid plexus Colorless infiltrate of blood ~600-700 ml each day Functions: 1. Protection 2. bouyancy 3. Removes _________ waste 4. Circulates nutrients (ex: glucose) and hormones  SPAU 3345: Neural Basis of Communication Thurs, Jan 23, 2025 CSF Absorption CSF absorbed by arachnoid granuloma aka arachnoid villi m Project through the dura mater One-way openings Drains into superior sagittal sinus and into venous system Disruptions to the Ventricular and Meningeal Systems Hematomas (see earlier) Hydrocephalus arachnoid granuloma reabsorption 1. Communicating hydrocephalus: problem with ______________________ reabsorption blockage of flow 2. Noncommunicating hydrocephalus: ____________________________ Can create a buildup that compresses brain tissue, potentially impacting blood flow 3. Normal pressure hydrocephalus: large + dialated Ventricles appear _____________________________ Impacts elderly, particularly with dementia impacts Cognition Ventricle size is due to ________________________ cortical tissue atropy rather than increased CSF 4. Low pressure hydrocephalus: Leaks in the meninges, CSF leaks out Reduced buoyancy Headaches worse when upright, improve when lying down Treatment Some cases require surgical treatment, shunt ↳ diverting blockage Meningitis Inflammation of the meninges Bacterial or viral cause Bacterial is more serious (https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/bacterial-meningitis) Can lead to brain damage, paralysis, stroke, death Painful stiff neck, headache, high fever, confusion, bruising, rash, light-sensitivity Viral is most common form and typically goes way without treatment Headache, nausea, light-sensitivity, lethargy All images from Blake, M. L. & Hoepner, J.K. (2023). Clinical Neuroscience for Communication Disorders: Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology. San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing.  lobes a function cells nervous system SPAU 3345: Neural Basis of Communication Thurs, Jan 28, 2025 menings Ch. 3 Neuron Anatomy & Physiology Part 1 Critical Couples 1. Gray Matter White Matter formed by : formed by : neuron cell bodies axons unmyelinated Fibers myelinated 2. Nuclei (Nucleus singular) Ganglia (Ganglion singular) j group of neuron cell bodies in CNS group of neuron cell bodies in PNS functionally relatedgroua 3. Tract or fasciculus Nerve ↑ pathway in CNS pathway of PNS functionally related of group avons 4. Afferent Efferent JESCAPE CNS) from the CNS · moving towards the CNS (sensory moving away /motor) motor CNS pathways from CNS sensory pathways to 5. Upper motor neuron Lower motor neuron of the CNS make up tracts make up nerves of the PNS Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852-1934) Neuronal Communication Neuron’s function is to communicate 1. Within cells: _______________________- electrical Signals Action potentials Chemical 2. Between cells: primarily _____________ via neurotransmitters Presynaptic vs Postsynaptic cells Neuronal Communication Sequence 1. Presynaptic cell generates an _________________ electrical signal down the axon 2. Electrical signal travels __________________ 3. Neurotransmitters released at _______________ axon terminals 4. Neurotransmitters bind to __________________ receptors on the post-synaptic cell membrane 5. New signal is triggered, cycle beings again - cycle can get triggered again or become harder to be triggered between cells within cells  SPAU 3345: Neural Basis of Communication Thurs, Jan 28, 2025 Setting the Stage for an Action Potential A. Membrane Potentials Neuron cell membranes = polarized Resting membrane potential = - 65m/ inside the cell OmV. outside (extracellular) MORE negative Hyperpolarization: inside the cell becomes _____ Less likely to generate a signal (action potential) OmV Depolarization: inside the cell becomes ____ LESS negative (closer to 0) More likely to generate a signal (action potential) 65 m/ Once depolarization hits a set threshold (e.g., -50mV), an action - potential is created B. Membrane Gradients balance Ions try to ________________ across the membrane Gradient: differential concentrations (ex: ___________________) ions charges , across the cell membrane Down Ions freely move __________ a concentration gradient high concentration - > low concentration 1. Electrical gradient: More _________ negative ions inside the cell and more positive ____________ ions outside the cell 2. Ion concentration gradient: allowed free movement , Na More ________________ outside the cell More ________________ inside the cell #"will Nat and move Ca't will out , Cq2t More ________________ outside the cell more into cell C. Cell Membrane Ion channels Basic channels: Always open, allow free movement for select ions neurotransmitters bind to them Ligand-gated (ionotropic): Open when _______________ Found: post-synaptic membranes · Mechanically gated: Open in response to _______________ mechanical displacement Found: sensory systems (skin · inner ear , Voltage gated: Open in response to _______________ Voltage change Found: along axon + axon terminal ·  SPAU 3345: Neural Basis of Communication Thurs, Jan 28, 2025 presynaptic Communication Between Neurons Synaptic Transmission Neurotransmitters released into synaptic gap - Bind to neurotransmitter-specific receptors ( Combination of neurotransmitter and - receptor à change in post-synaptic neuron Neurotransmitter releases from receptor recycled / destroyed via enzymatic Neuronal signals: Figure 3-7 1. Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential (EPSP) a. Binding neurotransmitter results in opening Na+ channels à causing Na+ to move into the neuron à making the charge more positive. b. Excitatory signals cause depolarization: i. Depolarization à enough depolarization meets threshold à creation of action potential 2. Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential (IPSP) a. Neurotransmitter results in opening K+ channels -> K+ moves out of neuron and cell becomes more negative b. Inhibitory signals cause hyperpolarization c. Hyperpolarization à moves cell further from threshold à limits or prevents action potentials EPSPs – “potentials” because potentials”, because they’re rarely strong enough to reach depolarization threshold on their own Soma Summation of EPSPs and IPSPs occurs in the ______, determines action potential is created whether ___________________________ inhibitory ↓ threshold O charge ↓ y Figure 3-3 restingential  SPAU 3345: Neural Basis of Communication Thurs, Jan 28, 2025 Action Potential (Fig 3-4) 1. EPSPs summate near the axon E hillock enough Natenter here heuron to hit threshold 2. Rapid opening of many voltage- gated Na+ channels in the axon Creates a rapid depolarization n (Nat rushes in Ihreiog 3. Na+ channels close and inactivate repolarization begins 4. K+ channels open, K+ moves out of the cell, repolarization happens It (Nat/kpump in Sodium-potassium activates push Nat out and back 3/2 to restore resting membrane Refractory Periods Potential Absolute refractory period & time Nat channels are · inactivated cannot , open created · no new action potentials Relative refractory period stimulus New Ap is possible , but requires a greater · EPSP could cause fire · more , then Action Potential Moves proximal-distally down the axon Exchange of ions along entire length in unmyelinated axons Exchange of ions occurs at Nodes of Ranvier in myelinated axons All images from Blake, M. L. & Hoepner, J.K. (2023). Clinical Neuroscience for Communication Disorders: Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology. San Diego, CA: Figure 3-6 Plural Publishing.  SPAU 3345: Neural Basis of Communication Thurs, Jan 30, 2025 Ch. 3 Neuron Anatomy & Physiology Part 2 From Clinical Neuroscience for Communication Disorders: Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology By Margaret Lehman Blake and Jerry K. Hoepner. Copyright © 2023 by Plural Publishing, Inc. All rights reserved. Reviewing Action Potential (Fig 3-4) #1: EPSP opens Na+ channels, causing depolarization #2: Na+ channels close and inactivate #3. K+ channels open, K+ moves out of the cell, repolarization happens #4. Na+/K+ pumps move K+ in and Na+ out to restore the resting membrane potential Review: Absolute refractory period, relative refractory period Action Potential Moves proximal-distally down the axon Exchange of ions along entire length in unmyelinated axons places whereroving , Exchange of ions occurs at Nodes of Ranvier in myelinated clinate a axons movement of action potential ↓ my faster · speeds up Nodes o a · called salutatory conduction 1 insulation" myelinated as At the end of neuron Laxon terminal) depolarization neurotransmitters Ca channels to release triggers  SPAU 3345: Neural Basis of Communication Thurs, Jan 30, 2025 Neurotransmitters – 3 groups Amino Acids: small organic molecules released at synapses from synaptic vesicles Amines: small organic molecules released at synapses from synaptic vesicles Peptides: large molecules released from axon terminal from secretory granules Neurotransmitters Relevant to Cognition, Communication, and Swallowing Neurotransmitter Location Function Effects of disruption **Gamma-amino cortex hippocampus Inhibitory effects , Clack of GABA) Huntington's , > - butyric acid (GABA) cerebellum n Disease i - **Glutamate (Glu) widespread CNS excitatory effects different levels of glu in (fastsynaptic transmission) Schizophrenia · **Acetylcholine (ACh) ① neuromuscular junction excitatory effect (voluntary Myastheria gravis movement) weakness , paralysis Sehpaste - tissue ② frontal lobes , cognitive tasks+ memory ↓ in AcH = Alzheimers hippocampus processes Disease (still excitatory) O **Dopamine (DA) Basal Ganglia motor system parkinsons that picks it u) Creceptor determines inhi bitory vs. excitatory) ② Frontal robes , limbic system , motivation , reward behavior addictions (gambling , sex) , reward centers cognitive deficits Epinephrine Norepinephrine Serotonin F Enkephalin Substance P - **primary focus for our course Making Sense of Binary Signals A. Number of action potentials per unit of time More signals represent more intense stimulus (e.,g. louder sound, deeper pressure) · softer , quieter sound · louder deeper , Stimulus  SPAU 3345: Neural Basis of Communication Thurs, Jan 30, 2025 e "endotaxonwhe " B. Differing Signal Strength released Amount of neurotransmitter released at the terminal bouton varies - Larger amount released the larger the EPSP/IPSPs faster than smaller EPSPs · can sum C. Source of signals Different neurons respond to different stimuli · ex : Walking on not sand : rock) · mechanoreceptors (stepping on ) thermorecptors (temp. · · nociceptors (pain) D. Location of synapse in the brain function See Box 3-7 location determines · 3 timer Ex hearing "ding" in kitchen signal : : same VI diff function. Elevator floor reached : VS. notification classroom : phone Synapses onto neurons in the hand area of the primary sensory strip are perceived as body sensation to the hand, etc. E. Circuits Patterns neuron arrangement : differe Circuits: distribution of signals 17 Divergent - widespread aa. B. Convergent - focused Figure 3-8 C. Reverberating – continuous signal D. Serial – single chain E. Parallel – signals sent through multiple tracks ↓ ↓d ↓ ↓d  SPAU 3345: Neural Basis of Communication Thurs, Jan 30, 2025 F. Lateral Inhibition Pattern of inhibitory signals enhances sensory perception Figure 3-9 Excitatory signals from all sensory neurons responding to touch There are more action potentials from neurons at the T exact point of touch Inhibitory interneurons reduce number of signals sent by neighboring neurons 00 Signals reaching brain = lots of action potentials from exact location of touch notexactpointofcontaasee · Diseases Involving Synaptic Transmission A. Parkinson’s Disease Degeneration of _________________________________ in ________________________ Decrease ________________ signals at D1 receptors à reduced range of motion, reduced facial expression, shuffling gait Decrease ________________ signals at D2 receptors à tremor B. Multiple Sclerosis Autoimmune disease that attacks ________________________ Damage to ___________ in CNS Slowed action potentials Signs/symptoms related to which areas are affected (motor system, cognitive circuits, etc.) Relapsing-remitting pattern of disease Relapse: immune system attacks o________________, symptoms worsen as ___________is destroyed Remission: immune system stops attacks (temporarily), intact oligodendrocytes remyelinate axons and symptoms resolve Over time, axons are destroyed resulting in permanent deficits/disabilities C. Myasthenia Gravis Autoimmune disease of ______________________________________ Immune system attacks _____ receptors on skeletal muscle  SPAU 3345: Neural Basis of Communication Tues, Feb 4, 2025 Ch. 3 Neuron Anatomy & Physiology Part 3 From Clinical Neuroscience for Communication Disorders: Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology parkinsons By Margaret Lehman Blake and Jerry K. Hoepner. dopamine Copyright © 2023 by Plural Publishing, Inc. All rights reserved. ↓ Diseases Involving Synaptic Transmission DI Da ↓ ↓ A. Parkinson’s Disease less excitatory more inhibitory can be · dopamine-producing neurons in Degeneration of _________________________________ nigra (in midbrain ( ________________________ substantia -not basal enough dopamine ganglia circuits in excitatory Or excitatory Decrease ________________ signals at D1 receptors  reduced range inhibitory of motion, reduced facial expression, shuffling gait inhibitory Decrease ________________ signals at D2 receptors  tremor > - increased movement B. Multiple Sclerosis Autoimmune disease that attacks ________________________ Damage to ___________ myelin in CNS Slowed action potentials type el , oligodendrocytes of · Signs/symptoms related to which areas are affected (motor system, cognitive circuits, etc.) Relapsing-remitting pattern of disease more symptoms > Relapse: immune system attacks ________________, Oligodendrocytes symptoms less worsen as ___________is myelin destroyed symptoms > - Remission: immune system stops attacks (temporarily), intact oligodendrocytes remyelinate axons and symptoms resolve Over time, axons are destroyed resulting in permanent deficits/disabilities C. Myasthenia Gravis neuromuscular junction Autoimmune disease of ______________________________________ Immune system attacks _____ ACh receptors on skeletal muscle Ferrat - & * acetocholine (voluntary muscle contraction) Weakness due to too few functioning ACh receptors fiber muscle Ach released from pre-synaptic neuron, binds to receptors, releases, is destroyed by acetylcholinesterase (AchE) Weakened muscle contraction lots of ACh destroyed fewer functioning receptors > , - · · after rest , ACh vis restored , Strength returns temporarily Diagnostic test: neostigmine/prostigmine injection as drugboAsChcan remain in synaptic gap longer (bind release, reand · (i botox , Neurotransmitters. Pharmacological Effects on Synapse e. of block release A. Blocking effect - of heurotransmitters to at the Synapse > block binding Drug blocks process ___________________ - receptors B. Prolonging effect Drug keeps neurotransmitter in synapse _____________, extends the effect longer  SPAU 3345: Neural Basis of Communication Tues, Feb 4, 2025 AlhE from down acetylcholine Anticholinesterase drugs : stop the breaking Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs): block the reuptake ________________ of serotonin so it can bind, release, re-bind and create greater effect on post- synaptic neuron C. Mimicking effect Drug = chemically similar and binds to receptors, making post-synaptic neuron respond as if a natural neurotransmitter is present inhibitory Benzodiazepines bind to GABA receptors causing ________________ effect in post-synaptic neurons Activity Action Potential (Fig 3-4) #1: EPSP opens Na+ channels, causing depolarization #2: Na+ channels close and inactivate #3. K+ channels open, K+ moves out of the cell, repolarization happens #4. Na+/K+ pumps move K+ in and Na+ out to restore the resting membrane potential All images from Blake, M. L. & Hoepner, J.K. (2023). Clinical Neuroscience for Communication Disorders: Neuroanatomy and Neurophysiology. San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing.  notebook M SPAU 3345 Neural Basis of Communication Spring 2025 Quiz 1 Key Items to Review Overview Major components of nervous system Autonomic vs somatic segments of PNS White matter vs gray matter Anatomy terminology Neuron vs glial cells Major structural landmarks of the hemispheres Lobes of the brain Ventricular System: Cranium, Ventricles, and Meninges Purpose of systems Meningeal layers Ventricles & CSF pathway Disruptions to Ventricular and Meningeal Systems Neuron Anatomy & Physiology Classification of neurons Membrane potentials Synaptic transmission Excitatory vs inhibitory postsynaptic potentials Action potentials (series of events) Absolute vs relative refractory period Saltatory conduction Neurotransmitters – focus on GABA, glutamate, acetylcholine, dopamine Variations in the binary signal (frequency, signal strength, source of signal, location) Conditions that alter synaptic transmission: PD, MS, Myasthenia Gravis Details No scantron needed, you’ll be able to write on the paper. Majority of questions objective in nature (multiple choice, matching, true/false) Labeling – Focus on images below Several short answer: lobes of the brain, cells of the nervous system, meninges Review figures: 1-2 1-6 1-15 1-22 2-4 2-6 3-1 3-4