Media and Gender Course Study Notes PDF

MEDIA AND GENDER (IKU-I-215) COURSE STUDY NOTES Course Information Course Code: IKU-I-215 Instructor: Dr. Cansu Arisoy Gedik Contact: [email protected] Course Overview and Objectives The course aims to provide a critical analysis of contemporary gender representations in media,...

MEDIA AND GENDER (IKU-I-215) COURSE STUDY NOTES Course Information Course Code: IKU-I-215 Instructor: Dr. Cansu Arisoy Gedik Contact: [email protected] Course Overview and Objectives The course aims to provide a critical analysis of contemporary gender representations in media, exploring their inherent contradictions and complexities. It focuses specifically on how media constructs gender through various subjects and contexts. Primary learning outcomes include: Identifying and analyzing theoretical tools for examining media representations of gender Interrogating key terminology used in gender and media studies Exploring effective forms of political and cultural intervention to challenge gender constructions Understanding how critiques of gender representation are often incorporated into media products themselves, sometimes appearing in ironic guises Required Course Materials 1. Rosalind Gill (2007). Gender and the Media. Polity Press. 2. David Gauntlett (2008). Media, Gender and Identity: An Introduction. Routledge. 3. Cynthia Carter & Linda Steiner (2004). Critical Readings: Media and Gender. Open University Press. Suggested Materials: News items, reports, and content from both conventional and electronic media can serve as course material. Key Theoretical Concepts: Understanding Gender What is Gender? Gender is defined as the socially constructed meaning of a person's physical sex Femininity and masculinity are socially constructed norms regarding behavior and appearance Gender meaning is formed through social interactions rather than being natural or innate Gender meanings are dynamic and subject to change over time Sex vs. Gender Sex typically refers to biological characteristics  Most people are expected to perform a gender that aligns with their sex Biological determinism: The view that biological differences determine gendered behavior Theoretical Approaches to Gender Key Theorists Sandra Bem created the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) in 1974 to measure how feminine or masculine people consider themselves regardless of sex Simone de Beauvoir famously stated: "One is not born, but rather becomes a woman" (1949) Ann Oakley distinguished between sex and gender, defining sex as biological differences and gender as cultural classification (1972) Approaches to Gender Essentialist approach: Views gender differences as natural and unchangeable Non-essentialist approach: Opens possibilities to reconsider gender meanings Anti-essentialist critique: Conceptualizes gender as a social construct not reducible to biology Gender as a Dynamic Concept Gender should be viewed as fluid and continuously reconstructed Intersectionality: Gender must be understood in relation to other social factors including class, age, sexuality, and ethnicity These intersecting factors are also social constructs with meanings that change over time Media Studies Concepts Defining Media Mass media aims to reach large audiences of anonymous recipients with similar information Includes newspapers, magazines, television, music, video games, and film Key Developments in Media Studies 1. Globalization Economic factors: Rise of multinational corporations Human factors: Increased migration and travel Historical focus on Western media (US/UK) is considered cultural imperialism Cultural imperialism: Domination of powerful nations imposing their norms and values 2. Technology Technological advances have transformed media production, content, and reception  Blurred traditional boundaries between media forms Critiques of Media Imperialism Media dispersion is not one-way traffic Resistance to American domination comes from both nations and audiences Audiences are not passive "sponges" absorbing media content The concept of cultural imperialism itself has fluctuating meanings that need clarification Gender and Media Studies Research Themes in Feminist Media Scholarship Three primary research themes: 1. Work on stereotypes and social roles 2. Ideology 3. Pornography Media Representation of Gender Media both reflects and shapes societal views on gender Stereotypes in media often reinforce traditional gender roles Contemporary media sometimes incorporates feminist critiques while simultaneously undermining them through irony Course Plan: Weekly Topics 1. Introduction: Why Study Gender and Media? What is Gender? What is Media? 2. Gender and Feminist Studies in Communication 3. Gender Inequalities: Masculinity vs. Femininity 4. The Media, Feminism, and Ideology 5. Objectification Theory and Body Surveillance 6. Media and Stereotypes 7. Power and Gender in the Media Industry: Glass Ceiling Effect 8. Mid Term 9. Queer Theory and Queer Representations 10. Gender in Magazines 11. News, Gender, and Journalism 12. Feminism and Online Activism: Feminist Online Resistance 13. Entertainment Industry and Gender 14. Consumer Culture and Gender in Advertisements Critical Analysis Topics Gender Stereotypes in Media "Blonde jokes" and gender-based humor Examination of whether such stereotypes are harmful or reinforcing bias Celebrity Culture and Gender Politics Analysis of statements like Lady Gaga's "I'm not a feminist. I hail men, I love men..." Critical examination of how celebrities position themselves in relation to feminism The double standards applied to male vs. female celebrities (Lady Gaga's comments about how male rockstars are praised for the same behaviors women are criticized for) Gendered Media Consumption Why certain video games and entertainment forms are marketed by gender Comparison of traditionally "feminine" media (e.g., The Sims) vs. "masculine" media (e.g., Assassin's Creed) Exploration of whether these differences reflect natural preferences or social conditioning Post-Feminist Television Critical analysis of shows like Sex and the City and Desperate Housewives Discussion of what makes certain shows "post-feminist television" Examination of why certain genres are labeled as feminine or masculine despite mixed audiences Key Questions for Analysis and Discussion 1. How does media both reflect and construct gender norms? 2. In what ways are critiques of gender roles incorporated into contemporary media? 3. How do different theoretical approaches (essentialist vs. non-essentialist) shape our understanding of media representations? 4. What role does intersectionality play in understanding media portrayals of gender? 5. How do technological and globalization factors influence gender representation in media? 6. What strategies could effectively challenge problematic gender constructions in media? 7. How does irony function in contemporary media representations of gender? 8. How do audiences actively interpret and sometimes resist dominant gender narratives in media? The Genderquake Concept Gender and media studies attempt to make sense of the current state of "flux and transformation" referred to as "The Genderquake" - the ongoing evolution and questioning of traditional gender concepts in both media and society. These notes cover the fundamental concepts, theoretical frameworks, and analytical approaches central to the Media and Gender course. Students should supplement these notes with close readings of the required texts and critical engagement with contemporary media examples. Gender and Feminist Studies in Communication Based on presentation by Dr. Cansu Arısoy Gedik Foundations of Feminist Studies Core Focus: Feminist studies center on achieving gender justice and examining how society organizes gender roles Societal Organization: Gender roles can create and sustain unfairness across cultures and time periods, impeding equal roles in democratic societies Dual Nature: Feminist communication research functions both as a political movement advocating for structural social change and as scholarly research intertwined with activist forms of feminism Primary Aim: Raising awareness of how gender affects individual life choices, personal development, and career success Historical Development Gender Studies Emergence: Emerged as a distinct academic field in the 1960s, spanning psychology, sociology, linguistics, and anthropology Paradigm Shift: Marked a transition from unquestioned assumptions about masculinity as the norm to critically examining masculinity itself Feminist Communication Studies: Became an established scholarly field in the 1970s following the second-wave feminist movement Research Findings: Early research, such as the Global Media Monitoring Project (1995-2005), showed minimal improvement in women's positions as media professionals, with women mostly appearing as victims or celebrities in news Theoretical Frameworks Stuart Hall's Encoding/Decoding Model (1980) Challenged assumptions of passive audience reception Proposed polysemic interpretation dependent on social context Emphasized that interpretation is influenced by ideological frameworks of media organizations These frameworks typically align with prevailing power structures in society Media messages are "encoded" within products, establishing preferred readings for audiences Feminist Approaches Various Forms: Liberal, radical, socialist, postmodern, post-feminist, postcolonial, and global feminist theories  Evolution: Starting in the 1980s, witnessed the emergence of postcolonial and transnational variations alongside Black feminism, Latina feminism, and third-wave feminism Intersectionality: Concept coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw (1989) to de-essentialize gender, considering it in connection with class, age, disability, sexuality, and ethnicity Media Representation Analysis by Medium Advertising Historically portrayed women negatively, belittled them, or represented them inaccurately Early research found women primarily shown as obedient wives and mothers Objectification through showing body parts rather than whole persons (now applies to men too) Second-wave feminism influenced change, resulting in more diverse representations of women in positions of power and as independent individuals Magazines Betty Friedan's "The Feminine Mystique" (1963) pioneered analysis of women's magazines Friedan argued magazines reinforced traditional gender differences and undermined women's "real" identities Magazine content is polysemic, unstable, and subject to subversive interpretations Second-wave feminism brought significant changes to women's magazines "Lad magazines" emerged as a defensive assertion of masculinity against feminist challenges Film Feminist film research focused on pornography and sexual violence in movies Horror films analyzed for gendered and sexual representations Studies examined heroes, masculinity (both heterosexual and homosexual), and the relationship of the body to the male gaze Television Historically limited women to domestic or sexual object roles Gender affects viewing habits and relationship with television (Morley, 1986) Production studies revealed women's underrepresentation in industry, with slower promotion and "glass ceiling" barriers Stereotypical gender portrayals: men as dominant, assertive, logical, and capable; women as desirable, submissive, and domesticated News  Male-dominated newsrooms created practices centered on objectivity, detachment, and narrow definitions of newsworthiness Gender division in reporting: men covering "hard" news while women assigned "soft" news Radio Feminist radio emphasizes women's freedom to broadcast in their own way, discussing their concerns and reflecting their lives Despite women not being equally represented behind the scenes, radio is accessible to women as listeners (affordable, compatible with multitasking) In Africa, radio listening developed as a communal activity through "listening clubs" Underrepresentation of female DJs in the industry Internet and New Media Three Perspectives: 1. Internet as a tool for feminist activism, organization, and networking 2. Internet as a misogynist sphere promoting harassment 3. Internet as a tool for women to combat globalization Different technology usage patterns across global regions Current technological discourse often has capitalistic, colonial, and Western biases Contemporary Movements and Digital Activism Case Studies 1. SheDecides: Founded in response to the global gag rule reinstated under Trump Aims to promote, provide, protect, and enhance fundamental rights of girls and women Raised €400 million to support reproductive rights 2. Gender Pay Gap: Increased public awareness led to concrete actions (e.g., resignation of BBC News editor Carrie Gracie) Functions as a global phenomenon highlighting discrimination against women in the workforce 3. #MeToo: Initiated by Tarana Burke in 2006 to empower women through empathy Focused especially on young and vulnerable women of color Served as an agenda-setting tool for mainstream media Example of how individuals now share media production power with large organizations  Demonstrates how social media reinforces growing societal focus on gender issues Reflects intersectional concerns, though faces criticism for becoming associated primarily with white, elite women Media Evolution and Power Shifts Jenkins (2006) identified power shifting from media producers to consumers Digital media empowered previously marginalized groups to create content Contemporary audiences cannot be treated as passive consumers Social media sustains and reinforces awareness of gender issues Digital divide persists: disparities in access to and use of technology Technological developments reveal power configurations shaping gender and media Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Essentialist Perspective: Presents dichotomous understanding of sex as biological determinant of gender Postmodern View: Defends gender and sex as fluid, non-dichotomous social constructs Media's Role: Actively produces and constructs gender, not merely reflects it Representation Issues: Women either portrayed in stereotypical roles (victims/consumers) or symbolically annihilated (ignored) by mass media Critical Questions for Analysis 1. Why are women symbolically annihilated in mass media? 2. Who produces these images and why? 3. How do power structures influence representation? 4. How do intersecting identities affect media representation and reception? 5. How can digital technologies both reinforce and challenge gender stereotypes? Contemporary Relevance Media studies and gender studies constantly evolve with changing technological and social landscapes Mainstream media sometimes downplays ongoing gender issues by implying equality has been achieved The relationship between gender and media remains complex and warrants continued critical analysis De-Westernization of media studies requires examining global contexts and power structures Continued examination of how media shapes and is shaped by gender is essential for advancing equality Gender Inequalities - Comprehensive Study Notes Based on presentation by Dr. Cansu Arisoy Gedik Introduction to Gender Inequalities The presentation examines the complex relationship between gender, media, and social structures in modern society. The cover slide uses a visual metaphor of an unbalanced scale, symbolizing the continuing inequality between genders despite progress in many areas. Media, Gender and Identity Central role of media: Media and communications are fundamental elements of modern life, while gender and sexuality remain core aspects of our identity formation Historical context: What we learned about media and gender in the 1960s-1980s may not be entirely relevant today due to significant changes in both media landscapes and societal attitudes Audience evolution: The concept of media "audiences" has become more complex, shifting from passive consumers to active participants Evolution of Media Participation In the 1990s, the World Wide Web emerged as a platform for people to share personal stories and creative content Around 2003, "Web 2.0" tools facilitated greater user participation and content creation Modern relationship with media is characterized by users being "participants" rather than just "audience members" Media interaction now incorporates significant levels of interactivity Social Media Landscape As of January 2022, the most popular social media platforms globally were: 1. Facebook 2. YouTube 3. WhatsApp 4. Instagram 5. Twitter 6. LinkedIn 7. Snapchat 8. TikTok  9. Pinterest 10. WeChat (multifunctional app in China) 11. Telegram (privacy-focused messaging) 12. Reddit (discussion and content sharing platform) Media Influences on Gender Perception Media influences are significant because: Media exposes us to different perspectives and shows how the world works through various characters' lives This exposure shapes our behaviors and expectations of others Influential media forms include: Domestic/romantic dramas and soap operas Gender-targeted magazines (both women's and men's) Movie heroes (both female and male) Portrayals of "attractive people" Gender Equality Status The presentation poses the question: "If there is a 'battle of the sexes,' who is winning nowadays?" While legal equality exists in principle (with some exceptions), significant practical inequalities persist Laws are being campaigned against and changed, but progress is slow "Democracy of Emotions" - Gender and Relationships Anthony Giddens' concept of "democratised" intimate relationships suggests modern partnerships are based less on external laws or social expectations and more on emotional communication between partners When emotional bonds cease to exist, modern society generally accepts relationship dissolution As more women have entered the workforce, gender roles within marriages have become more similar Both women and men are increasingly rejecting traditional gender-based expectations Persistent Workplace Inequalities Quote: "Women remain largely invisible, their voices unheard" (Mayanja, United Nations, 2006) Top positions in businesses and organizations remain predominantly held by men, creating male- dominated cultures  Example: Cambridge University research found a closed, male-dominated (macho) culture despite being considered progressive Traditional attitudes continue to impact opportunities at all organizational levels London's financial districts (Canary Wharf, Square Mile, Lombard Street) are cited as examples of environments with entrenched macho culture Progress and Persistent Challenges Women's magazines promote assertiveness and independence Men's magazines encourage understanding women and addressing contemporary issues Media representation shows greater equality in movies and TV shows Challenge: This equality in media representation needs to extend to workplaces and government, where men still disproportionately hold power Motherhood continues to be viewed as women's primary caregiving role, though attitudes and regulations are slowly changing Example: Tony Blair's refusal to take paternity leave in 2000 is cited as setting a poor example for work-life balance Masculinity in Modern Society The presentation asks: "Is there a Crisis for the Modern Men?" It questions whether men's roles have been diminished to the point of requiring renegotiation Media frequently discusses challenges to modern masculinity: 1. Confusion about male identity due to changes in work and family structures 2. Influence of feminism in the 1970s-1980s making public culture more politically correct 3. Neo-conservatism and its approach to social behavior As women demonstrate equal capabilities, men's traditional provider role has diminished in significance Both men and women need to discover new, relevant roles in modern society Reimagining Masculinity Men can adopt new forms of masculinity that prioritize: Love, family, and personal relationships Over traditional emphasis on power, possessions, and success The traditional male provider role can harm men who cannot find employment Being reduced to "breadwinning robots" dependent on job markets and detached from meaningful relationships is neither powerful nor desirable  Both sexes have become victims of consumer culture Understanding Femininity Masculinity is seen as the state of "being a man" (though in flux) Femininity is not necessarily viewed as "being a woman" but rather as a stereotype of women's historical roles While men typically want their identities to align with masculinity (even as the definition evolves), femininity is not necessarily a core value for modern women Being "feminine" is just one of many performances women can choose to employ in different contexts Traditional femininity (characterized by passivity, reticence, and deference to male authority) has largely fallen out of favor Society generally wants young women to be successful, making traditional feminine characteristics increasingly obsolete Commercial Adaptations Example: Barbie dolls have evolved to reflect modern consumer preferences by: Introducing more diverse doll options Promoting inclusivity Expanding product lines Madonna is cited as an example (Kaplan, 1993) of someone who "adopts one mask after another" to demonstrate that there is no "essential" feminine identity, only cultural constructions Key Theoretical Concepts 1. Democracy of Emotions (Giddens, 1999): Relationships based on emotional communication rather than external obligations 2. Cultural Construction of Gender: Gender identities as performed rather than innate 3. Macho Culture: Organizational environments that favor traditionally masculine traits and behaviors 4. Media Participation: Evolution from passive audience to active content creators Conclusion The presentation reveals the complex interplay between media influence, changing gender roles, and persistent inequalities. While significant progress has been made toward equality in some areas (media representation, legal rights), structural inequalities persist in workplaces and domestic arrangements. Both masculinity and femininity are undergoing redefinition, with traditional gender roles increasingly viewed as optional performances rather than essential identities. The challenge remains to create systems and structures that support genuine equality while acknowledging the ongoing evolution of gender concepts. Bodies and Objectification Comprehensive Study Notes on Dr. Cansu Arısoy Gedik's Presentation 1. Understanding Self-Objectification Core Definition Self-objectification occurs when an individual adopts an external observer's view of their own body This mindset treats the body as an object to be evaluated primarily for its appearance rather than for its functionality or capabilities It represents a shift from experiencing the body from a first-person perspective to viewing it from a third-person perspective Development Process Beauty standards in society shape the development of a self-objectifying perception This leads to heightened self-appearance scrutiny and constant self-monitoring The process is cyclical and self-reinforcing as individuals internalize external standards 2. Objectification Theory and Body Surveillance Key Concepts Body surveillance: The consistent monitoring and evaluation of one's external appearance against culturally esteemed standards Women typically internalize a third-person perspective, valuing observable body characteristics more than internal, functional attributes This internalization leads to continuous self-evaluation and monitoring Media's Role Mainstream media is a significant factor encouraging objectification and self-monitoring Media often links a person's value to their sexual appeal The critical issue is when individuals internalize sexually objectifying messages, not just exposure alone Consequences Body surveillance leads to numerous negative psychological and physical outcomes While traditionally more common in women, adult males are increasingly concerned about their physical appearance  At the individual level, these practices can lead to a range of negative health outcomes 3. The Complex Process of Self-Objectification Multiple Components Self-objectification is not limited to body surveillance or internalization alone It's a complex process involving all three components: internalization of standards, adoption of an observer's perspective, and continuous monitoring The process begins with individuals adopting societal beauty standards as their own Prioritization of Appearance Self-objectification relates to how individuals prioritize appearance-based features (like sex appeal and measurements) over competence-based attributes (health and physical fitness) Greater self-objectification occurs when someone places more importance on how they look than on their inner qualities This increased focus on appearance rather than functionality leads to specific behavioral patterns Behavioral Indicators People who engage in more body surveillance spend more time checking their appearance They frequently compare themselves to others who embody cultural ideals These comparisons reinforce the cycle of self-objectification 4. Media and Objectification Sexually Objectifying Media Content Media portrays ideal women as fashionable and curvy, often shown in a sexualized manner viewed through the male gaze Television depicts women using their bodies to attract men through both dialogue and visual scenes Music videos place strong visual emphasis on beauty ideals Magazines "teach" readers how to modify their appearance according to current ideals Beauty and fashion are presented as fundamental aspects of a woman's life and value Social Media's Impact Profile photos occupy a central place in online profiles, emphasizing appearance Awareness of exposure to the gaze of peers (particularly male) encourages greater importance on appearance  Different media platforms may have varying relationships with internalization, self-objectification, and body surveillance Social media promotes attractiveness as a cultural advantage, encouraging people to present themselves visually and seek validation 5. Body Surveillance in Contemporary Culture Advertisements and Social Media When people see numerous perfect images, they pursue unrealistic standards This exposure leads to unfavorable self-comparisons and body dissatisfaction Advertisers capitalize on body insecurities to market products Social validation metrics (likes, comments, followers) become indicators of social acceptance Psychological Impact Objectified body consciousness: Seeing oneself as something others can judge or comment on In societies that treat female bodies as objects for use and entertainment, women begin seeing themselves from an outsider perspective Social media significantly promotes self-objectification by emphasizing visual self-presentation for validation Social Comparison People conform to societal ideals of desirable body types and measure themselves against these standards Without objective evaluation standards, people make evaluations by comparing themselves with others Most women cannot realistically compare with idealized media figures, leading to inevitable body dissatisfaction and negative emotional consequences 6. Gendered Aspects of Objectification Men's Experiences Men's body image concerns relate to their desire for muscularity This drive for muscular development can lead to body image disturbances The concept of objectification helps explain the increase in men's drive for muscularity Exposure to ideal male bodies in media and social comparison are linked to men desiring more muscle Men experience personal sexual objectification less frequently than women but can develop self- objectification through media exposure Gender Differences in Ideals Media projects dual-sex body ideals beginning in childhood The divide between gendered ideals becomes more apparent in adulthood Different body types and focused attention on specific body parts characterize gendered beauty standards The perpetuation of these ideals in popular media correlates with lowered self-esteem and body dissatisfaction Evolving Research Focus While objectification research traditionally focused on women, there is growing interest in studying how it affects men Mannequins in retail settings represent idealized body standards that can trigger negative self- evaluation in both genders Media significantly influences how adults of all genders perceive themselves 7. Cultural Phenomena and Examples "Manga Waist Challenge" Illustrates extreme body ideals promoted in popular culture Shows how fictional standards can influence real-world body expectations Celebrity Involvement Celebrities promote and sometimes challenge body standards Their influential position can either reinforce or help dismantle unrealistic ideals Childhood Exposure Body ideals are introduced through gendered toys like action figures and fashion dolls Early exposure to these standards shapes developing self-concept and body image 8. Conclusion: The Cycle of Objectification Objectification stems from cultural messages that value appearance over function Individuals internalize these standards and adopt an observer's perspective toward their own bodies This internalization leads to continuous self-monitoring and surveillance Media, advertising, and social platforms reinforce these patterns The resulting body dissatisfaction has significant psychological, emotional, and physical impacts These processes affect all genders but manifest in gender-specific ways Understanding these mechanisms is crucial for developing healthier relationships with our bodies Power and Gender in the Media Industry: Glass Ceiling Effect Dr. Cansu Arısoy Gedik Introduction and Key Concepts The connection between gender and media: Extends beyond just counting men and women employed in these fields. Case studies: Lena Dunham (creator of Girls): Faces criticism for not aligning closely with feminist ideals and being perceived as successful primarily because of her privileged upbringing. Julie Larson-Green (when appointed head of Xbox division at Microsoft): Despite 19 years of experience at Microsoft, gamers expressed discontent, suggesting she might focus on creating games related to baking and knitting. What is the Glass Ceiling? Definition: Term commonly used to describe vertical gender segregation observed in media production. Conceptual dimension: The concept is quite ambiguous, making it challenging to provide a clear definition. Federal Glass Ceiling Commission (1995) definition: "There seemed to be an invisible – but impenetrable – barrier between women and the executive suite, preventing them from reaching the highest levels of the business world regardless of their accomplishments and merits." Glass ceiling metaphor: Named because it's unseen and transparent, and you only become aware of it when you encounter it unexpectedly. 4 Criteria for Differentiating Glass Ceiling from Other Factors: 1. The glass ceiling signifies a gender contrast that cannot be accounted for by other job-related traits of the employee. 2. Glass ceiling inequality denotes a gender or racial contrast that becomes more pronounced at higher levels compared to lower levels. 3. Glass ceiling inequality indicates a gender or racial disparity in the likelihood of progressing to higher levels, rather than just the current composition at those levels. 4. Glass ceiling inequality reflects a gender or racial disparity that intensifies over the course of a career. Glass Ceiling and Related Concepts Glass ceiling vs. sticky floor:  Glass ceiling: Salary and leadership gaps for women in higher positions Sticky floor: Wage gap for women at lower levels Gender inequality: Women earn less than men for similar job performances. Glass ceiling inequality vs. sexism: Different concepts. Core Issues in the Media Industry Political economy perspective: Wealthy, white, heterosexual male media owners prefer their interests reflected in "their media," leading to the glass ceiling. "Old-boys'-network": An informal system where men, often connected through shared experiences like student fraternities and private schools, exchange favors and connections. "It's not what you know, it's who you know": Reflects the network's influence. Informal networks for women: Unlike men's networks, the favors and contacts do not relate to the public sphere but to the private sphere. New Media and Gender Dynamics Internet and new media: Seen as having potential for greater gender and ethnic equality compared to traditional media. Free market and proliferation of media channels: Increased the significance of audience targeting. Audience segmentation for advertisers: Audiences are commonly categorized by gender. Feminine-masculine media types: Feminine media types and genres have lower status than masculine ones (hard media). Top managerial positions: Women can reach top managerial positions in soft genres, but not as easily in hard genres. Virginia Woolf and "A Room of One's Own" (1929) Patriarchy and female writers: Patriarchy excludes female writers from the literary realm. Women's needs: Women need space (and some money) to write. Women's position: Women are frequently in lower-ranking professions, their production framed as craft rather than creativity. The Distinction Between Hard and Soft Genres Hard news: Linked to quality and masculinity, seen as serious, factual, and important, earning more respect. Soft news: Associated with femininity, viewed as less serious, emotional, and lacking urgency. Marxist feminist view: Connects this idea to the distinction between high and low culture, referring to it as the 'gendering of cultural forms'.  Gendering of genres: Popular genres like soap operas and romance novels are seen as low-quality mass culture, associated with femininity. Current affairs programs, literature, and classical music are labeled as high culture, suggesting high quality and masculinity. Historical Roots of Media Industry BBC history: Initially staffed by WWI survivors, later replaced by WWII men in the 1950s. Civil service and military tradition: Established the producer role as inherently masculine from the beginning. Media as Professions and Private Life Gender perception: Men are seen as public, women as private. Media is considered part of the public sphere. Family structures: Women often have to deal with disapproval from their families or significant others. Family responsibilities: In most cultures, women still carry the largest share of responsibility for the family. Revolving door effect: A consequence of the difficult balance between family and creative labor. Male Values in Production and Audiences Gendering of media types: Media genres like soap operas, soft rock, and glossy magazines are labeled as feminine, while evening news, heavy metal, and scientific magazines are considered masculine. Historical perceptions: Historical perceptions of media roles contributed to defining today's soft and hard genres and their respective audiences. Example: The rebellious nature of rock and roll clashed with traditional femininity in the 1950s, shaping the perception of male rock musicians and female fans. Narrowcasting Targeted audience content: Media production increasingly tailors content to specific audience segments, inadvertently reinforcing gender conventions. US TV programs: As the largest exporter of TV programs, the US disseminates its gender norms globally. Gender and consumption: The industry benefits from linking gender with consumption, generating sales by creating gender-specific content for male and female audiences. Liberal Perspective Glass ceiling explanation: The liberal perspective explains the glass ceiling indirectly.  Hard and soft genres: The distinction also has to do with the status of male and female production. Numerical equality vs. structural inequality: Even in organizations where the numbers of men and women hired are similar, there is still gender inequality in terms of salary and positions, and it cannot be explained. Glass Ceiling and Societal Structures Multiple mechanisms: Various mechanisms collectively contribute to the formation of the glass ceiling, and these mechanisms vary across industries, levels, and individuals. Key factors: The status of labor, genres, and media types The connections between media professions and private life The historical foundations of media production The presence of male-oriented values in media production Conclusion and Discussion Reality of glass ceiling: Gender inequality persists in the media sector. Structural issues: The problem is not individual but systemic and structural. Need for progress: Real equality requires change at societal, institutional, and individual levels. MAJOR SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON GENDER AND MEDIA Based on presentation by Dr. Cansu Ansoy Gedik INTRODUCTION This document provides a comprehensive overview of the major sociological perspectives on gender and media, examining how different theoretical frameworks interpret gender relations and how media both reflects and reinforces these relationships. 1. FUNCTIONALIST PERSPECTIVE Core Concepts Social Stability: Functionalists maintain that gender differentiation has contributed to overall social stability Division of Labor: Talcott Parsons (1955) argued that for families to function effectively, adults must specialize in particular roles Complementary Roles: Traditional gender roles arise from the need to establish a division of labor between marital partners Gender Role Specialization Expressiveness: Women take the expressive, emotionally supportive role Concerned with maintaining harmony and internal emotional affairs of the family Instrumentality: Men take the instrumental, practical role Focused on tasks, distant goals, and external relationships between family and other social institutions Social Organization Women become anchored in the family as wives, mothers, and household managers Men become anchored in the occupational world outside the home This division is seen as natural and beneficial for society's functioning Functionalism and Media The functionalist view has historically supported traditional gender roles Media, as a social institution, is seen as reflecting and perpetuating these norms Media reinforces existing social structures through: Reinforcement of traditional gender roles  Limited representation and opportunities for women Impact on gender equality Evolution of perspectives 2. CONFLICT PERSPECTIVE Core Concepts The functionalist approach masks the underlying power relations between men and women Social institutions may acknowledge women's expressive skills, but men's instrumental skills are more highly rewarded in terms of money and prestige Power Dynamics The relationship between females and males has traditionally been one of unequal power Men hold a dominant position over women Men may have originally become powerful in preindustrial times because their size, physical strength, and freedom from childbearing duties allowed them to dominate women physically In contemporary societies, physical differences are less important, but cultural beliefs about gender are long established Marxist Analysis Conflict theorists view gender differences as a reflection of the subjugation of one group (women) by another (men) Using Marxist terms of class conflict: Males are like the bourgeoisie or capitalists; they control most of society's wealth, prestige, and power Females are like the proletariat or workers; they can acquire valuable resources only by following the dictates of their bosses Value of Labor Conflict theorists emphasize that men's work is uniformly valued Women's work (whether unpaid labor in the home or wage labor) is devalued This is illustrated by the gender wage gap (shown visually in the slides with figures on stacks of coins of different heights) Unpaid Labor Undervalued contributions: Women's domestic and care work is economically significant but undervalued  Global impact: If women stopped performing unpaid labor (cooking, cleaning, childcare, etc.), the global economy would collapse Time poverty: Despite awareness of women's "time poverty," the burden of unpaid labor continues to fall disproportionately on women, especially in developing countries Double burden: Even in higher-income countries, women's "work" doesn't stop after their paid job —it continues at home, with women spending nearly an hour more on household activities than men in the US Conflict Perspective and Media Media perpetuates existing gender inequalities and power imbalances through: Power imbalances and gender inequality Serving as a tool of the dominant group Economic exploitation based on gender Commodification of gender Potential for resistance and social change 3. FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE Historical Context Engels argued that women's subjugation coincided with the rise of private property during industrialization Only when societies moved beyond an agrarian economy could males enjoy leisure and withhold rewards and privileges from women Economic Analysis Drawing on Marx and Engels, many contemporary feminist theorists view women's subordination as part of the overall exploitation and injustice inherent in capitalist societies Intersectionality Contemporary feminists recognize the differential treatment of women not only because of their gender but also because of the intersection of their race, ethnicity, and socioeconomic status The concept acknowledges that all women do not experience oppression in the same way Matrix of Domination Visualized as intersecting social identities that create privilege or disadvantage Includes factors such as: Gender Age  Race and ethnicity Social class Disability Religion Sexual identity Citizenship status Feminist Perspective and Media The feminist perspective critiques existing structures, challenges stereotypes, and advocates for gender equality Ongoing efforts by feminist scholars and activists shape the evolving landscape of gender and media studies through: Analysis of representation and stereotypes Critique of media ownership and control Intersectional analysis Examination of media content and sexism Activism and media literacy promotion Development of alternative media and social platforms Policy advocacy 4. INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE Core Concepts While functionalists and conflict theorists study macro-level social forces and institutions, interactionists examine gender stratification at the micro level of everyday behavior The key to this approach is how gender is socially constructed through everyday interactions People "do gender" by reinforcing traditionally masculine and feminine actions Examples of "Doing Gender" A man "does masculinity" by opening a door or holding a chair for his girlfriend She "does femininity" by consenting to his assistance These small interactions reinforce gender norms and expectations Gender and Communication One research area is the role of gender in cross-sex conversations (sometimes called "crosstalk") The idea that men interrupt women more than women interrupt men  Empirical research does not clearly support this assertion People in positions of authority or status (who are more likely to be male than female) dominate interpersonal conversations This doesn't necessarily mean women cannot be heard Mansplaining A pejorative term describing when a man comments on or explains something to a woman in a condescending, overconfident, and often inaccurate or oversimplified manner Characterized as a combination of overconfidence and cluelessness Explaining without regard to the fact that the explainee knows more than the explainer Interactionism and Media The interactionist perspective studies micro-level interactions and how individuals interpret gender roles through media It enhances understanding of how media shapes individual perceptions of gender through: Symbolic interaction and meaning-making Audience reception and agency Cultural and social influences Labeling and self-identity Language and discourse Face-to-face interactions and media influence Social construction of reality SUMMARY: SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON GENDER Theoretical Perspective Emphasis Functionalist Gender differentiation contributes to social stability Conflict Gender inequality is rooted in the female-male power relationship Feminist Women's subjugation is integral to society and social structure Interactionist Gender distinctions and "doing gender" are reflected in people's everyday behavior REFLECTION QUESTIONS 1. What is your interpretation of the data visualizations on unpaid work and leisure time in OECD countries? 2. Do you agree with global development experts that unpaid work should be more equally distributed to allow for the economic and social progress of women across the world? 3. Which elements of the matrix of domination privilege you? Which place you at a disadvantage?