Fish Habitat and Rehabilitation Lecture 2023 PDF

FISH HABITAT AND3 2 0 REHABILITATION 2 U S L C R _ V E _ W IE EMMA L. BALLAD, Ph.D. BUREAU OF FISHERIES AND AQUATIC RESOURCES REGION 2 ELBALLAD_BFAR2 TUGUEGARAO CITY, CAGAYAN OUTLINE OF PRESENTATION v Fish habitats and rehabilitation * coral reef (zonation, laws and regulations, conservatio...

FISH HABITAT AND3 2 0 REHABILITATION 2 U S L C R _ V E _ W IE EMMA L. BALLAD, Ph.D. BUREAU OF FISHERIES AND AQUATIC RESOURCES REGION 2 ELBALLAD_BFAR2 TUGUEGARAO CITY, CAGAYAN OUTLINE OF PRESENTATION v Fish habitats and rehabilitation * coral reef (zonation, laws and regulations, conservation and management) * mangrove/nipa swamps (laws and regulations, conservation and management) * seagrass beds (laws and regulations, conservation and management) * marine parks and sanctuaries (artificial reefs and sea ranching) U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 BIOGEOGRAPHY Ø Philippine waters contain some of the world’s richest ecosystems, characterized by extensive coral reefs, seagrass beds, and dense mangrove forests. Ø Waters enriched with nutrients from the land and driven by the wind, the Philippines supports an exceptionally high diversity of marine life. Ø The Philippines lies within the global center of marine biodiversity (Sale 1991). Ø Philippines lies in the heart of the region with the greatest number of coral genera. Ø Fourteen species of seagrasses are also found in the Philippines, the highest number in the Indo-Pacific ELBALLAD_BFAR2 region and second worldwide only to Western Australia with 17 species (Fortes 1989). U S L C R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Factors that contribute to this exceptional range of biodiversity include: Ø A warm climate and stable water temperatures that rarely dip below 18°C; Ø The sun’s abundant light that fuels the energy-capturing photosynthesis process that supports the growth of algae, coral, and other organisms; Ø Relatively low sediment loads that allow passage of the light deep into the water; Ø Generally low freshwater inputs that maintain a salinity level between 30 and 36 ppt; Ø Currents, clean water, and hard substrates that provide optimal conditions for the corals and other aquatic life to thrive (White 1987a). U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 IMPORTANCE OF THE COASTAL ZONE 3 2 • REEF-RELATED FISHERIES YIELD AN ESTIMATED 9-12 % OF THE WORLD’S TOTAL FISHERY OF 70 MILLION TONS/YEAR _ W IE 0 2 • REEF FISHERY CONTRIBUTES 8-20 % TO THE COUNTRY’S TOTAL CATCH. FOR SMALL ISLANDS, THIS COULD REACH UP TO 70% R _ V E • FISH IS THE SECOND MOST IMPORTANT ITEM IN THE FILIPINO’S DIET U S L C • THE FISHING INDUSTRY PROVIDES DIRECT EMPLOYMENT TO ROUGHLY 1 MILLION PEOPLE, 68% FROM COASTAL AREAS ELBALLAD_BFAR2 HABITATS OF THE COASTAL ZONE Beaches - A dynamic zone or strip of unstable unconsolidated material (e.g., sand, gravel) deposited along the shoreline. Beaches are subject to erosion (removal of material) and accretion (deposition of material) produced by waves, wind, and tidal currents. _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Coral reef - Wave and current resistant calcareous structures formed in situ from the skeletons of corals and other organisms. They constitute the largest biogenic structures on the planet and support assemblages of living corals and many other organisms, including fish, mollusks, marine worms, crustaceans, algae, and sponges (Ormond and Douglas 1996). U S L C R _ V E Estuaries - A semi-enclosed coastal basin in which fresh river water entering at its head mixes with saline water entering from the ocean; usually associated with a river’s intersection of the coast. ELBALLAD_BFAR2 Foreshore - The intertidal part of a beach or the part of the shorefront lying between the beach head (or upper limit of wave wash at high tide) and the mean low water mark that is ordinarily traversed by the uprush and backrush of the waves as the tides rise and fall. Legally defined as 40 m inland from mean high tide. 0 2 3 2 Lagoons - A semi-enclosed coastal basin with limited fresh water input, high salinity, and restricted circulation; lagoons often lie behind sand dunes, barrier islands, or other protective features, such as the coral reef of an atoll lagoon. V E _ W IE Mangroves - Any of the many genera of woody plants that are capable of living and growing in salt water or salty soils. The mangrove forest harbors a rich biological community that is supported by the mangrove and associated species of trees and other plants. U S L C R _ Seagrass Beds - Areas of salt tolerant plants that occur in shallow nearshore waters, estuaries, lagoons and adjacent to coral reefs. They hold sediment in place, support a rich detrital community, and provide food and habitat for many important nearshore species. ELBALLAD_BFAR2 Food chain - to the transfer of food energy from plants (primary producers) through a series of organisms eating one another. In most cases, organisms serve as links in more than one food chain, thus they are interconnected in a complex food web Organisms can be grouped into three major food groups: 0 2 3 2 Producers: Organisms that convert the energy of sunlight into carbon, water, and nutrients through the photosynthesis process. Phytoplankton are the most numerous group in the marine ecosystem. V E _ W IE Consumers: Organisms that eat producers (primary consumers) are planktivores or herbivores while carnivores eat the planktivores and herbivores or even other carnivores (secondary consumers). U S L C R _ Decomposers: Micro-organisms (bacteria and fungi) that break down organic debris to their basic inorganic nutrients that can then be recycled through the food web. ELBALLAD_BFAR2 CRITICAL COASTAL HABITATS _ W IE • ESTUARIES, LAGOONS, AND BAYS 0 2 • MANGROVE FORESTS AND HABITATS V E • BEACH AND FORESHORE R _ • SEAGRASS AND ALGAL BEDS AND SOFT-BOTTOM COMMUNITIES U S L C • CORAL REEFS ELBALLAD_BFAR2 3 2 1. ESTUARIES, LAGOONS, AND BAYS Littoral basin ecology Ø Estuaries, lagoons, and bays are coastal geographic features described as shallow, semienclosed, and sheltered littoral (pertaining to the seashore or coast) water bodies. Ø These water bodies have high ecological value but often are modified in ways that substantially degrade their environmental quality and thus their capacity to provide benefits to people. U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Ø It often support a specialized fishery habitat as well as soft-bottom mudflats and communities. 1. ESTUARIES, LAGOONS, AND BAYS Littoral basin ecology Bays or embayment - more open littoral basins, with less restriction of the inflow and outflow of salt water and salinity levels near or equal to the open ocean. R _ Estuaries - water is diluted by fresh water drainage. River mouths are a good example where tidal influx causes salinity fluctuations that can range from normal seawater to fresh water U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Lagoons are basins with limited fresh water supply and high salinity. They may be cut off from the sea for part of the year by seasonal formation of sandbars which causes them to become hypersaline. Resource uses Ø Export nutrients and organic materials through tidal circulation Ø Provide habitats for many commercially and recreationally valuable species Ø Serve migratory species with shallow, protected areas for feeding, breeding, and nursery habitat through associated habitats like seagrass beds and mangroves. U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Factors that help to explain the high productivity of littoral basins include: Ø Favorable range of salinity which decreases as one 3 2 ascends upstream through the tidal rivers Ø Large quantity of organic nutrients and oxygen provided by estuarine flora and marine inputs Ø Use of solar radiation which is enhanced by the shallow depths Ø High rates of vertical mixing that assists oxygen and nutrient exchange Ø Close proximity of bordering wetlands, mangroves, and seagrass beds that provide critical habitats for many estuarine species. U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 Management issues ØLittoral habitats is being reduced by land filling/ reclamation ØUncontrolled extraction of fishery and sand resources ØPollution ØDiversion of water upstream in the watersheds for irrigation reduces water flows, which can alter salinity gradients and the flushing or dilution capability of a water body U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Management interventions Ø Conduct of Environmental impact assessments (EIAs) and Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) can be employed to minimize pollution from shoreline sources _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Ø Efforts to improve infiltration of rainwater into the soil will reduce surface runoff. V E Ø Proper agriculture and forestry methods will promote infiltration in rural areas as rain strikes the ground surface. U S L C R _ Ø Increasing pervious vegetative cover in urban areas by limiting the amount of impervious surfaces (compacted soil, asphalt roads, parking lots, buildings, and sidewalks) is important to help reduce runoff. ELBALLAD_BFAR2 Legal and institutional framework Ø Pollution acts relating to discharge of solid waste, sewage, or other impacts from sources inside the LGU normally are under the responsibility of the LGU as devolved by the DENR. Ø Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004. Republic Act No. 9275 titled “An Act Providing for a Comprehensive Water Quality Management and for Other Purposes R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Ø Sedimentation or discharge of waste related to mining activities is pursued by LGU in coordination with the Mines and Geosciences Bureau. Ø Republic Act 7942 otherwise known as the Philippine Mining Act U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 2. MANGROVE FORESTS AND HABITATS Mangrove ecology -Mangroves are woody, seed-bearing plants adapted for life in brackish and waterlogged soils that are acidic and often anoxic (without oxygen). V E _ W IE -They vary in size from shrubs to tall trees and are found along sheltered tropical mudflats in association with estuaries and lagoons and extend inland along rivers, streams, and their tributaries where the water is brackish. U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ 0 2 3 2 Ø Major genera are Rhizophora, Avicennia, Bruguiera, Sonneratia, and Nypa. Ø Avicennia - spread shallow root systems widely across the mud. Their pneumatophores or breathing roots project up through the mud to absorb oxygen. Ø Rhizophora spp. have prop or stilt roots from trunks and branches that buttress or support the plants, providing better anchorage during high winds and waves. The prop roots also provide attachment substrates for a multitude of marine organisms. U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Distribution is determined largely by the limits of salinity, substrate, and tidal inundation. Generally Avicennia marina and Sonneratia alba dominate the most seaward area with its breathing roots protruding from the mud. Moving inland is Rhizophora stylosa followed by R. apiculata whose extensive prop roots reduce tidal currents, causing sediment and silt to deposit. Progressing further inland, Bruguiera inhabits the landward areas reached by the ELBALLAD_BFAR2 highest tides. The most landward zone is occupied by the Ceriops or Lumnitzera. Another important species is the creeping palm (Nypa), found along brackish rivers and lagoons. U S L C U S L C R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 ELBALLAD_BFAR2 MANUAL ON COMMUNITY-BASED MANGROVE REHABILITATION Mangrove Manual Series no. 1 Resource uses Ø Source of numerous products ((aquatic species timber, etc) Ø produce nutrients from decomposing leaf litter. Ø provide habitat that serves as reservoirs, refuges, feeding grounds, and nursery grounds for many useful and unusual organisms. Ø Slow water movement to trap sediments, forming new land Ø filter and absorb pollutants by the mangroves. Ø dissipate the energy of the waves, slowing their passage inland U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Management issues U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E Ø mangrove conversion to fishponds Ø Production of firewood, charcoal, and building materials often was the initial incentive to cut trees, followed later by conversion to fishponds. _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Management interventions 3 2 Ønational ban (Presidential Proclamation 2146, 1982; Republic Act 7161, 1991) on cutting mangroves _ W IE 0 2 Ø Section 4 of Republic Act 7161 has always been explicit about the ban on cutting all species of mangroves, while section 43 of PD 705 says all mangrove swamps set aside for coast protection purposes shall not be allowed for clearcutting operations. V ØAdoption of theENGO- assisted CommunityR _ based Mangrove Forest Management U S ØNational Greening Program/ Mangrove L C Rehabilitation Project ELBALLAD_BFAR2 Legal and institutional framework Ø DENR is responsible for determining which lands can be released to the Department of Agriculture-Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (DABFAR) for fishpond use. 0 2 3 2 Ø Under the Local Government Code (LGC), the responsibility for conservation of mangroves and management of fishery resources is shared with the LGU _ W IE Ø Under the Code, the DENR together with DA-BFAR and the LGU are mandated to direct participatory processes in determining which abandoned, undeveloped, or underutilized fishponds covered by FLAs can be reverted to timberland for rehabilitation to their original mangrove state (Section 49). U S L C R _ V E Ø For those mangrove areas to be managed as forest resources, the DENR’s CBFMA provides a more sustainable approach to reforestation and maintenance of existing resources. ELBALLAD_BFAR2 3. BEACHES AND FORESHORE LAND USE Ø Beaches are the most widely recognized habitat in the coastal zone. Ø They are a limited access area governed by foreshore land use setback requirements of the DENR and other laws Ø Beaches are defined as the non-vegetated part of the shoreline formed of loose materials, usually sand, that extend from the upper berm to the low-water mark. They are dynamic landforms whose features are constantly being shaped through the forces of wind and water. U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Ø Berm: A ridge or ridges on the backshore of the beach, formed by the deposit of material by wave actions that marks the upper limit of ordinary high tides and wave rush. R _ V E Ø Beach ridge: A more or less continuous mound of beach material behind the berm that has been heaped up by wave actions during extreme high water levels. If largely wind made, it is usually called a dune and may be vegetated. U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 0 2 3 2 Ø Beachface: The beach zone that encompasses both the foreshore and backshore. _ W IE Ø Beach ridge: A more or less continuous mound of beach material behind the berm that has been heaped up by wave actions during extreme high water levels. If largely wind made, it is usually called a dune and may be vegetated. U S L C R _ V E Ø Dunes: These are more or less continuous mounds of loose, wind-blown material, usually sand behind the berm (often vegetated). They can be very mobile, visibly gaining or losing sand. Dunes are rarely found in the Philippines. ELBALLAD_BFAR2 0 2 3 2 •Bar: An offshore ridge that is submerged permanently or at higher tides. •Trough: A natural channel that runs between an offshore bar and the beach or between offshore bars. _ W IE •Foreshore: That part of the shore that lies between the crest of the most seaward berm and the ordinary low -water mark. It is usually traversed by the wash of waves as the tides rise and fall. Often is the steepest part of the beach profile. The slope depends on the wave energy and size of the sand grain. Larger grain size generally is associated with steeper beaches. U S L C R _ V E •Backshore: The portion of the beach that is usually dry, lying between the foreshore and the dune line. It is normally impacted by waves only during storms and exceptional high water. ELBALLAD_BFAR2 Resource use ØRecreation and tourism ØLaying ground of sea turtles ØProvide habitat for burrowing species, such as clams, crabs, and many other small crustaceans ØBuffers between the land and sea where they provide protection against waves and erosion. U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Resource issues ØMultiple conflicting uses ØErosion ØPollution by sewage and solid waste ØPublic access ØSand mining ØReclamation/dredging ØLight pollution U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Management interventions 3 2 Ø Preventive planning Ø Beach nourishment Ø Conservation natural protective features like coral reefs, mangroves, and dunes Ø Prevention of pollution Ø Zoning U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 Legal and institutional framework Ø The legal authority for management of beaches and adjacent properties lies primarily with the LGU. 0 2 3 2 Ø Mining and quarrying are governed by the DENR, the provincial governor, and the Sangguniang Panlalawigan or the Municipality depending on the situation. Extraction of sand and gravel along beaches is prohibited by national law up to 200 m inland (Batas Pambansa Bilang 265). R _ V E _ W IE Ø The DENR also has set procedures (DENR AO 97-05) to retain vegetated cover and trees within certain distances along the banks of rivers, streams, and shores of seas, lakes, and oceans for environmental protection and for public use in the interest of recreation, navigation, floatage, fishing, and salvage. U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 4. SEAGRASS AND ALGAL BEDS AND SOFT-BOTTOM COMMUNITIES 0 2 3 2 Ø The Philippines enjoys extensive seagrass and algal beds and soft-bottom communities that often occur in close proximity to mangroves and coral reefs. Ø Soft-bottom communities comprised of sand or muddy substrates occur in many shallow subtidal areas. Ø Some are dominated by seagrass and algal beds while others are not vegetated. Ø Seagrasses that usually inhabit sandy and soft-bottom areas are the only submerged flowering plants in the marine environment. U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE Ø Thriving in the shallow waters lining the shore, they have adapted to life in saline waters with a root system that can withstand wave action and a reproductive system that distributes pollen by water. Ø They possess erect leafy shoots and creeping stems or rhizomes that aid in propagation. Unlike other marine plants like seaweeds or algae, they flower, develop fruit, and produce seeds. Ø They are normally found in areas where light can easily penetrate (shallow, clear, calm waters) enabling photosynthesis to occur. Ø Vast seagrass meadows are often found between coral reefs and the coastal mangroves, colonizing the soft, shallow, sandy-muddy bottom. Ø They can be several hundred meters wide and cover large expanses of the reef flat. U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Øsupport and provide nutrients and physical habitat to a variety of organisms. ØImportant fish species, such as some rabbitfishes (siganids) rely completely upon the seagrasses. Shrimps, sea cucumbers, sea urchins, seahorses, crabs, scallops, mussels, and snails are economically important and abundant in seagrasses. ØMany resident and transient species use the seagrasses for refuge, spawning, and nursery activities. ØLarge animals like dugong and green sea turtles also graze extensively in seagrass beds. Seahorses, a tourist attraction and of medicinal value, reside in seagrass beds U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Resource use U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Management issues 3 2 Ø Encroachment and seagrass modification Ø Sedimentation Ø Introduction of waterborne pollutants Ø Destruction of submerged and fringing vegetation U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 Management interventions Ø Mapping and identification of beds to catalogue the extent and location of the resource; Ø Zoning to prioritize use of space between pristine seagrass meadows versus those that are disturbed, altered, or newly emergent; Ø Controlling of fishing methods to ban bottom trawling, blast fishing, and other methods of harvesting which tear up the bottom and cause turbidity; Ø Reducing pollution by enforcing prohibitions against discharge of urban and industrial effluent and sea dumping of solid waste or dredge spoils and by reducing the amount of impervious surface area in the upland areas abutting the shoreline. Ø Maintaining vegetated buffers along the shoreline and around disturbed sites to filter the runoff and promote infiltration of water into the ground; improve logging, mining, and agriculture practices to prevent erosion U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Management interventions ØControl coastal construction and beach nourishment; ØTransplanting shows signs of success from experimental transplanting; however, careful selection of the transplant site in regard to light, nutrients, and sediment type and stability is important while considering relative cost and benefits; and ØRecreation and tourism opportunities can provide opportunities for alternative sources of income to replace income generated by activities that degrade seagrass beds. U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 5. CORAL REEFS Ø Coral reefs are known as the “oasis of the ocean” because they are small points of very high productivity occurring within vast oceans, which are essentially very low in nutrients and energy. Ø They are extremely efficient in capturing nutrients and sunlight and then cycling them for use by many different organisms. Ø They often occur in association with other ecosystems, particularly seagrass beds and mangrove forests which provide nursery and feeding areas for many reef creatures. Ø The Philippines is near the center of coral diversity in the world, with at least 430 different species of corals (Gomez et al. 1994). U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE Each coral animal or polyp builds a cup-shaped calcium carbonate (limestone) skeleton around it by extracting calcium from the seawater 0 2 3 2 This hard fixed skeleton gives coral its rock-like appearance U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Coral reefs are generally grouped into three types: barrier reefs, fringing reefs, and atolls U S L C R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 • FRINGING REEFS GROW CLOSE TO THE SHORE OF A LANDMASS, EXTENDING OUT LIKE A SUBMERGED PLATFORM. • BARRIER REEFS ALSO FOLLOW A COASTLINE, BUT ARE SEPARATED FROM IT BY WIDE EXPANSES OF WATER. • ATOLLS ARE RING-SHAPED REEFS SURROUNDING LAGOONS. ELBALLAD_BFAR2 U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Management issues ØIndiscriminate and destructive fishing methods Ø Coral mining ØEffects of tourism U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Management interventions U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Legal and institutional framework Ø The protection and management of coral reefs is primarily the responsibility of LGUs through the authority of the LGC and that shared by national agencies like the DENR and DA-BFAR. _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Ø Although the national government agencies have banned such destructive practices as coral mining, blast fishing, cyanide use, and trawling within most municipal waters, corals usually are located nearshore within the statutory limits of municipalities (less than 15 km from their coastline). U S L C R _ V E Ø Sec 96 of RA8550 as amended by RA10654 – Ban on Coral Exploitation and Exportation ELBALLAD_BFAR2 Creating and managing marine protected areas Ø Marine protected area(MPA):Any specific marine area that has been reserved by law or other effective means and is governed by specific rules or guidelines to manage activities and protect part or the entire enclosed coastal and marine environment. Ø Marine sanctuary: An MPA where all extractive practices, such as fishing, shell collection, seaweed gleaning and collecting of anything else is prohibited. It also allows for control of other human activities, including access, in order to protect the ecosystem within the specific site. Ø Marine reserve: An MPA where strict sanctuary conditions are not mandated for the entire area yet there is still a desire to control access and activities, such as boating, mooring and various fishing techniques. It allows for zones that include a sanctuary area. U S L C R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Marine park: An MPA where multiple uses are encouraged that emphasize education, recreation and preservation; usually implemented by zonation schemes that can include a sanctuary area (White 1988a). ELBALLAD_BFAR2 U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 Basic criteria for selection of marine protected area sites 3 2 Ø Relative naturalness: Areas still in good condition; Ø Representativeness: Areas that are unique, include important ecological functions and/or species; Ø Biodiversity: Areas with high diversity of species/ecosystems; Ø Vulnerability: Areas with rich resources/biodiversity that are relatively vulnerable to disturbance or destruction; Ø Fisheries value: Areas that are strategic to enhance fisheries; Ø Tourism value: Areas that could, if protected, enhance appropriate recreational uses and tourism revenues; Ø Social acceptance: Acceptability of all stakeholders; Ø Practicality of management: Relative ease of management. U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 3 2 • SEA FARMING — THE STOCKING OF NATURAL OR HATCHERYPRODUCED MARINE PLANTS OR ANIMALS, UNDER CONTROLLED CONDITIONS, FOR PURPOSES OF REARING AND HARVESTING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO COMMERCIALLYIMPORTANT FISHES, MOLLUSKS (SUCH AS PEARL AND GIANT CLAM CULTURE), INCLUDING SEAWEEDS AND SEAGRASSES. R _ V E _ W IE 0 2 • SEA RANCHING — THE RELEASE OF THE YOUNG OF FISHERY SPECIES REARED IN HATCHERIES AND NURSERIES INTO NATURAL BODIES OF WATER FOR SUBSEQUENT HARVEST AT MATURITY OR THE MANIPULATION OF FISHERY HABITAT, TO ENCOURAGE THE GROWTH OF THE WILD STOCKS. U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 THANK YOU FOR LISTENING 3 2 _ W IE AND GOOD V LUCK!!!! E R _ U S L C ELBALLAD_BFAR2 2 0