0134723791_lnppt_Ch01.pptx

Understanding Psychology Twelfth Edition Chapter 1 The Science of Psychology Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives (1 of 3) 1.1 Defi...

Understanding Psychology Twelfth Edition Chapter 1 The Science of Psychology Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives (1 of 3) 1.1 Define psychology, and describe some of the major subfields within psychology. 1.2 Describe the five enduring issues that cut across the subfields of psychology. 1.3 Explain what psychology has in common with other sciences, how psychologists use the scientific method, and the difference between theories and hypotheses. 1.4 Characterize critical thinking by its various steps. 1.5 Describe the emergence of scientific psychology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives (2 of 3) 1.6 Explain the roles voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.” 1.7 Explain how Watson and Skinner redefined the field of psychology. 1.8 Describe what is meant by “the cognitive revolution” in psychology. 1.9 Explain how evolutionary psychology and positive psychology are changing the focus of contemporary psychology. 1.10 Describe the role of women in the history of psychology. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Learning Objectives (3 of 3) 1.11 Discuss the ways in which knowledge and awareness of human diversity can and does inform and enrich psychological study. 1.12 Describe the characteristics, strengths, and weaknesses of naturalistic observation, case studies, surveys, and correlational research. 1.13 Describe the differences between independent and dependent variables and between control groups and experimental groups. 1.14 Differentiate between random and representative samples, and describe the factors that can influence a research study. 1.15 Identify key ethical issues in psychological research with humans and nonhumans. Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved What Is Psychology? (1 of 11) Learning Objective 1.1 Define psychology, and describe some of the major subfields within psychology. Psychology – The scientific study of behavior and mental processes Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved What Is Psychology? (2 of 11) The Breadth of Psychology – Developmental ▪Study of all aspects of human growth and change from prenatal period through old age – Physiological ▪Investigate the biological basis of behavior, thoughts, and emotions Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved What Is Psychology? (3 of 11) The Breadth of Psychology continued – Experimental ▪Investigate basic psychological processes – Personality ▪Study the differences between individuals on a variety of traits Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved What Is Psychology? (4 of 11) The Breadth of Psychology continued – Clinical ▪Focuses on diagnosis, causes, and treatment of psychological disorders – Counseling ▪ Focuses on the everyday adjustment issues faced by individuals Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved What Is Psychology? (5 of 11) The Breadth of Psychology continued – Social ▪Explore how society influences thoughts, feelings, and behavior – Industrial and Organizational (I/O) ▪ Apply principles of psychology to practical issues of the workplace Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved What Is Psychology? (6 of 11) Learning Objective 1.2 Describe the five enduring issues that cut across the subfields of psychology. Enduring Issues – Person–Situation ▪Are we masters of our fate or victims of circumstances? – Nature–Nurture ▪To what extent are we a product of innate tendencies, and to what extent are we a reflection of experiences and upbringing? – Stability–Change ▪Are the characteristics we develop in childhood permanent, or do we change significantly throughout our lives? Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved What Is Psychology? (7 of 11) Enduring Issues continued – Diversity–Universality ▪Does our understanding of human behavior apply equally well to everyone across cultures? – Mind–Body ▪What is the relationship between experiences and biological processes? Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved What Is Psychology? (8 of 11) Learning Objective 1.3 Explain what psychology has in common with other sciences, how psychologists use the scientific method, and the differences between theories and hypotheses. Psychology as Science – Scientific method relies on ▪Collecting data ▪Generating a theory to explain the data ▪Producing testable hypotheses based on the theory ▪Testing those hypotheses empirically Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved What Is Psychology? (9 of 11) Psychology as Science continued – Theory ▪Systematic explanation of phenomenon ▪Organizes known facts ▪Allows prediction of new facts ▪Permits degree of control over the phenomenon – Hypotheses ▪Specific, testable predictions derived from a theory Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved What Is Psychology? (10 of 11) Learning Objective 1.4 Characterize critical thinking by its various steps. Critical Thinking: Thinking Like a Scientist – Examine the information we have – Making judgments and decisions – Characterized by objectivity, caution, and a willingness to challenge opinions and beliefs, including our own Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved What Is Psychology?(11 of 11) Critical Thinking: Thinking Like a Scientist continued – Define the problem or question – Suggest a theory or explanation – Collect and examine evidence – Analyze assumptions – Avoid oversimplifying – Draw conclusions – Consider alternative interpretations – Recognize the relevance Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Growth of Psychology as a Science (1 of 7) Learning Objective 1.5 Describe the emergence of scientific psychology in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Greek philosophers (4th century BCE) – Socrates – Plato – Aristotle René Descartes (16th century) John Locke (17th century) Thomas Hobbes (17th century) Charles Darwin (19th century) Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Growth of Psychology as a Science (2 of 7) Learning Objective 1.6 Explain the roles of voluntarism, structuralism, functionalism, and psychodynamic theory played in initially defining psychology as “a science of the mind.” The “New Psychology”: A Science of the Mind – Voluntarism (Wundt) ▪States attention is actively controlled by intentions and motives – Structuralism (Titchener) ▪Stresses basic units of experience – Functionalism (William James) ▪Focused on how individuals use their perceptual abilities to adapt and function in their environment – Psychodynamic psychology (Sigmund Freud) ▪Contends behavior results from psychological factors that interact within the individual Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Growth of Psychology as a Science (3 of 7) Learning Objective 1.7 Explain how Watson and Skinner redefined the field of psychology. Redefining Psychology: The Study of Behavior – Behaviorism (Watson) ▪Studies only observable and measurable behavior – Behaviorism Revisited (Skinner) ▪Added to Watson’s theory with concept of reinforcement Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Growth of Psychology as a Science (4 of 7) Learning Objective 1.8 Describe what is meant by “the cognitive revolution” in psychology. The Cognitive Revolution – Gestalt psychology ▪Studies how people perceive and experience objects as whole patterns – Humanistic psychology ▪Emphasizes nonverbal experience and altered states of consciousness as a means of realizing one’s full human potential – Cognitive psychology ▪Devoted to the study of mental processes in the broadest sense Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Growth of Psychology as a Science (5 of 7) Learning Objective 1.9 Explain how evolutionary psychology and positive psychology are changing the focus of contemporary psychology. New Directions – Evolutionary psychology ▪Concerned with the evolutionary origins of behaviors and mental processes, their adaptive value, and the purposes they continue to serve – Positive psychology ▪Focuses on positive experiences; self-determination; the relationship between positive emotions and physical health; and the factors that allow individuals, communities, and societies to flourish Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Growth of Psychology as a Science (6 of 7) New Directions continued – Multiple perspectives of psychology today ▪Different perspectives are seen as complimentary and contributing to our understanding of human behavior ▪Agreed upon that the field advances only when new evidence is added to support or challenge existing theories Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved The Growth of Psychology as a Science (7 of 7) Learning Objective 1.10 Describe the roll of women in the history of psychology. Where are the women? – Women contributed to psychology from its beginnings, facing much discrimination ▪Mary Whiton Calkins ▪Christine Ladd-Franklin ▪Margaret Floy Washburn – Today, Women outnumber men as members of the APA Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Human Diversity (1 of 5) Learning Objective 1.11 Discuss the ways in which knowledge and awareness of human diversity can and does inform and enrich psychological study. Gender – The psychological and social meanings attached to being biologically male or female – Gender stereotypes ▪Beliefs about “typical” male or female behaviors and roles – Gender roles ▪Cultural expectations regarding acceptable behavior and activities based on gender Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Human Diversity (2 of 5) Gender continued – Feminist psychology ▪Wide variety of views on social roles of women and men – Sexual Orientation ▪Direction of one’s sexual interest toward members of the same sex, the other sex, or both sexes ▪Research in this area is still just beginning Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Human Diversity (3 of 5) Race and Ethnicity – Race ▪Subpopulation of species, defined according to an identifiable characteristic – Ethnicity ▪Common cultural heritage shared by a group of individuals Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Human Diversity (4 of 5) Culture – Values, attitudes, behaviors, and beliefs that are passed from one generation to another – Cross-cultural research ▪The exploration of the extent to which people differ from one culture to another ▪Examines the way cultures and subcultures affect behavior Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Human Diversity (5 of 5) Culture continued – Individualistic cultures ▪Value independence and personal achievement – Collectivist cultures ▪Value interdependence, fitting in, and harmonious relationships Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Research Methods in Psychology (1 of 10) Learning Objective 1.12 Describe the characteristics, strengths, and weaknesses of naturalistic observation, case studies, surveys, and correlational research. Naturalistic Observation – Systematic study of animal or human behavior in natural settings rather than a laboratory – Advantages ▪Behavior is likely to be more natural, spontaneous, and varied – Disadvantages ▪Observer bias might distort or influence interpretation of what is actually observed Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Research Methods in Psychology (2 of 10) Case Studies – Intensive description and analysis of a single individual or just a few individuals – Advantages ▪Can provide valuable insights useful for forming hypotheses – Disadvantages ▪Observer bias ▪Cannot draw general conclusions from a single case Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Research Methods in Psychology (3 of 10) Surveys – Questionnaires or interviews administered to a selected group of people – Advantages ▪Can generate a large amount of data at a relatively low cost – Disadvantages ▪Accuracy dependent on specific question writing and participant honesty Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Research Methods in Psychology (4 of 10) Correlational Research – Based on the naturally occurring relationship between two or more variables – Advantages ▪Useful for predicting behavior ▪Often sheds light on important psychological phenomena – Disadvantages ▪Limited control over variables ▪Cannot draw conclusions about cause and effect Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Research Methods in Psychology (5 of 10) Learning Objective 1.13 Describe the differences between independent and dependent variables and between control groups and experimental groups. Experimental Research – Some variables deliberately manipulated and subsequent effects on behavior measured – Advantages ▪Allows researchers conclusions about cause-and-effect relationships to be drawn – Disadvantages ▪Unexpected and uncontrolled variables may confound results; many variables cannot be controlled and manipulated Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Research Methods in Psychology (6 of 10) Experimental Research continued – Independent variable ▪Variable that is manipulated to test its effects on other, dependent variables – Dependent variable ▪Variable that is measured to see how it is changed by manipulations in the independent variable Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Research Methods in Psychology (7 of 10) Experimental Research continued – Experimental group ▪The group subjected to a change in the independent variable – Control group ▪The group not subjected to a change in the independent variable; used for comparison with the experimental group Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Research Methods in Psychology (8 of 10) A Replication Crisis? – Reproducibility is central to all sciences ▪Concerns grew that very few studies in the life and social sciences were being replicated – Working to improve reproducibility and balance between original research and replication Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Research Methods in Psychology (9 of 10) Multimethod Research – Combination of various research methods to obtain better insights Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Research Methods in Psychology (10 of 10) Learning Objective 1.14 Differentiate between random and representative samples, and describe the factors that can influence a research study. The Importance of Sampling – Sample ▪A subgroup of a population – Random sample ▪Sample in which each potential participant has an equal chance of being selected – Representative sample ▪Sample carefully chosen so that the characteristics of the participants corresponds closely to the characteristics of the larger population Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ethics and Psychology: Research on Humans and Animals (1 of 4) Learning Objective 1.15 Identify key ethical issues in psychological research with humans and nonhumans. APA ethical guidelines for human subjects – Participants must be informed of the nature of the research in clearly understandable language – Informed consent must be documented – Risks, possible adverse effects, and limitations on confidentiality must be spelled out in advance Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ethics and Psychology: Research on Humans and Animals (2 of 4) APA ethical guidelines for human subjects continued – If participation is a condition of course credit, equitable alternative activities must be offered – Participants cannot be deceived about aspects of the research that would affect their willingness to participate – Deception about the goals of the research can be used only when absolutely necessary to the integrity of the research Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ethics and Psychology: Research on Humans and Animals (3 of 4) Animal Research – Used in experiments when using human participants would be unethical – Animal protectionists and other question whether it is ethical to use nonhuman animals, which cannot give their consent to serve as subjects Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Ethics and Psychology: Research on Humans and Animals (4 of 4) APA ethical guidelines for animal subjects – Researchers must ensure “appropriate consideration of the animal’s comfort, health, and humane treatment” – Animals may not be subjected to “pain, stress, or privation” when an alternative procedure is available Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Copyright Copyright © 2019, 2016, 2013 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved