Defining Psychology PDF

Defining Psychology We can define psychology as the systematic, scientific study of behaviors and mental processes. The term behavior refers to observed actions or responses in both humans and animals. Behaviors might include eating speaking, laughing, avoiding, sleeping, and hundreds of others. Me...

Defining Psychology We can define psychology as the systematic, scientific study of behaviors and mental processes. The term behavior refers to observed actions or responses in both humans and animals. Behaviors might include eating speaking, laughing, avoiding, sleeping, and hundreds of others. Mental processes, which are not directly observable, include planning, thinking, imaging, coping, dreaming, and many others. As you will see, this definition of psychology developed out of ideas, discussions, and arguments among the early psychologists. Goals of psychology 1\. Psychologist\'s first goal is to explain or understand why organisms behave in certain ways. 2\. The second goal is to predict how organisms will behave in the future. 3\. Some psychologists would include a third goal, to control behavior. The idea of control has both positive and negative sides. The positive side is that psychologists can help people learn to control anger, depression, overeating, smoking, poor study habits, and even the difficulties that accompany autism. The negative side is that people\'s behaviors might be controlled without their knowledge or intention. \*\*Psychological Research: Objective and Repeatable\*\* Scientific research has key features: objectivity, repeatability, communication, and a systematic approach. \- \*\*Objectivity\*\* means using clear, precise definitions and accurate observations that reflect the real world. This helps avoid personal biases and ensures the results are reliable. \- \*\*Repeatability\*\* means that others should be able to repeat the study and get the same results. For example, if a study finds that a reward makes a behavior more likely, other researchers should be able to observe this same result in different settings. \- \*\*Double-blind\*\* studies are used to prevent bias. In these studies, neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving the treatment or a placebo. This helps ensure that the results are due to the treatment itself, not personal expectations or biases. Traditional Branches of Psychology 1\. \*\*Clinical Psychology\*\*: Clinical psychology focuses on diagnosing and treating mental health issues like depression, anxiety, and PTSD. Clinical psychologists work in hospitals, private practices, and academic settings. They provide therapy, conduct psychological tests, and develop treatment plans to help individuals manage and overcome their problems. Their work involves understanding mental health conditions and using evidence-based methods to treat them. 2\. \*\*Counseling Psychology\*\*: Counseling psychology helps people deal with everyday life challenges and transitions, such as stress, relationship issues, and career changes. Counseling psychologists work in schools, universities, community health centers, and private practices. They provide counseling to help individuals develop coping strategies, improve their well-being, and achieve personal growth. Their focus is on supporting people through life\'s difficulties rather than treating severe mental disorders. 3\. \*\*Developmental Psychology\*\*: Developmental psychology studies how people grow and change throughout their lives, from infancy to old age. This branch looks at physical, emotional, social, and cognitive development. Developmental psychologists conduct studies to understand how different factors influence development at various life stages. They work in research settings, schools, and healthcare facilities, providing insights that can help with education, parenting, and addressing developmental disorders. 4\. \*\*Educational Psychology\*\*: Educational psychology examines how people learn and how to improve teaching methods. Educational psychologists work in schools, universities, and research institutions. They develop instructional strategies, design educational programs, and assess learning difficulties to enhance educational outcomes. Their work helps create better learning environments and support systems for students of all ages. 5\. \*\*Experimental Psychology\*\*: Experimental psychology uses scientific methods to study basic psychological processes like perception, memory, learning, and motivation. Experimental psychologists conduct experiments in laboratories to test theories about behavior and mental processes. They manipulate variables to observe their effects, providing data that inform other fields of psychology. This research is mainly done in academic and research institutions. 7\. \*\*Industrial-Organizational Psychology\*\*: Industrial-organizational (I-O) psychology studies workplace behavior and organizational processes. I-O psychologists work in human resources, management consulting, and organizational development. They analyze factors affecting employee performance and satisfaction, develop strategies to enhance productivity, and create healthier work environments. Their goal is to improve both employee well-being and organizational effectiveness. 8\. \*\*Personality Psychology\*\*: Personality psychology studies individual differences in behavior, thoughts, and emotions. Personality psychologists use assessments and questionnaires to measure traits and understand how they influence various life aspects, like relationships and work. Their research helps explain the complexity of human behavior and how personality traits develop and interact with different situations. New Directions in Psychology 1\. \*\*Health Psychology\*\*: Health psychology explores how psychological factors affect health and illness. Health psychologists work to promote healthy behaviors, improve healthcare systems, and understand the psychological impact of illness. They might work in hospitals, clinics, or public health organizations, helping people adopt healthier lifestyles and cope with chronic illnesses. 2\. \*\*Neuropsychology\*\*: Neuropsychology studies the relationship between brain function and behavior. Neuropsychologists assess and treat individuals with brain injuries or neurological disorders. They often work in hospitals, research institutions, or private practices, using techniques like brain imaging and cognitive tests to understand and treat conditions affecting the brain. 3\. \*\*Positive Psychology\*\*: Positive psychology focuses on strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive. This branch studies happiness, resilience, and well-being. Positive psychologists work in research, education, and therapy settings to develop interventions that enhance life satisfaction and personal fulfillment. 4\. \*\*Cognitive Psychology\*\*: Cognitive psychology investigates internal mental processes like perception, memory, language, and problem-solving. Cognitive psychologists conduct research to understand how people process information. They work in academic and research settings, using experiments and models to study how the mind works. 5\. \*\*Environmental Psychology\*\*: Environmental psychology studies how people interact with their physical surroundings. Environmental psychologists explore how environments like buildings, cities, and natural spaces affect behavior and well-being. They work in urban planning, architecture, and research to design spaces that improve quality of life. 7\. \*\*Community Psychology\*\*: Community psychology focuses on social issues and community well-being. Community psychologists work to promote social justice, improve community health, and address systemic problems. They collaborate with community organizations, governments, and residents to create positive social change and support community development. 8\. \*\*Quantitative Psychology\*\*: Quantitative psychology involves developing and applying statistical methods to study psychological phenomena. Quantitative psychologists work in research to create new techniques for analyzing data. They help design experiments, surveys, and other studies to ensure accurate and reliable results. 9\. \*\*Community Mental Health\*\*: Community mental health focuses on providing mental health services to communities, especially underserved populations. Professionals in this field work in community health centers and public health organizations to offer preventive care, early intervention, and community-based treatment. 10\. \*\*School Psychology\*\*: School psychology combines principles of educational and clinical psychology to support students\' learning and mental health. School psychologists work in educational settings to address academic, emotional, and behavioral issues. They assess students, provide counseling, and develop programs to help students succeed in school. 11\. \*\*Human Experimental Psychology\*\*: Human experimental psychology studies basic human behaviors through controlled experiments. Researchers in this field investigate processes like perception, memory, and learning. Their work often overlaps with cognitive psychology and provides foundational knowledge that informs other areas of psychology. 12\. \*\*Animal Experimental Psychology\*\*: Animal experimental psychology studies the behavior of non-human animals to understand basic psychological processes. Researchers conduct experiments to learn about learning, memory, and behavior in animals. This research often informs our understanding of human psychology and contributes to fields like behavioral neuroscience and comparative psychology. These branches collectively cover a broad range of topics and applications, illustrating the diverse and dynamic nature of psychology as a field. - ***1. \*\*Structuralism\*\*: sensation, perception ,feeling ,thoughts*** - - \- \*\*Overview\*\*: Structuralism is an early school of thought that aimed to understand the structure of the mind by breaking down mental processes into their most basic components. - - **- \*\*Key Figures\*\*:** - - \- \*\*Wilhelm Wundt\*\*: Often considered the \"father of experimental psychology,\" Wundt established the first psychology lab and used experimental methods to study consciousness. - \- \*\*Edward Titchener\*\*: A student of Wundt, Titchener expanded on Wundt\'s ideas and used introspection (self-observation) to analyze conscious experiences. - - **- \*\*Main Idea\*\*:** Structuralists believed that complex mental phenomena could be understood by analyzing their most basic elements. They focused on sensations, images, and feelings, breaking down consciousness into these fundamental parts. - - \- **\*\*Methods\*\*:** Introspection, where individuals reported their thoughts and feelings in response to stimuli, was the primary method used to explore the structure of the mind. - **Criticisms** - \- \*\*Subjectivity\*\*: Introspection was criticized for being too subjective and unreliable because different people might report different experiences for the same stimulus. - \- \*\*Lack of Practical Application\*\*: Structuralism was also seen as too focused on the internal components of the mind without considering the function or practical applications of mental processes. -   **Behaviorism** John Watson argued that psychology should focus on observable behavior, and reject any reference to subjective experiences which he believed, were on scientific and impossible to measure. Behavioral system is based on the following keep principles **1-Focus on observable behavior** **2-conditioning** Conditioning in behavior and psychology is a way of learning through experiences. There are two main types: 1\. \*\*Classical Conditioning\*\* ( ivan pavlov): Learning by associating one thing with another. For example, if a bell rings every time you get food, you might start to feel hungry just hearing the bell. 2\. \*\*Operant Conditioning\*\*(BF Skinner): Learning through rewards and punishments. For example, if you get a treat for doing your homework, you're more likely to do it again. So, conditioning is about how our actions and responses can be shaped by our experiences. - 3-reinforcement and punishment - Reinforcement: Is the consequences that increases the likelihood of behavior being repeated - Punishment: Which is the opposite and is the consequences that decreased the likelihood of behavior being repeated - 4-environmental factors: - They believe behavior is shaped by environmental factors rather than internal mental processes, behaviorist focus on external factors, such as rewards punishments and social interactions, rather than internal ones, such as thoughts and emotions - ***3. \*\*Psychoanalytic Approach\*\*:*** - - **- \*\*Overview\*\*:** Psychoanalysis explores the influence of unconscious desires and childhood experiences on behavior and personality. -   - **- \*\*Key Figure\*\*:** -   - \- \*\*Sigmund Freud\*\*: Developed psychoanalysis and proposed that unconscious forces drive human behavior. He introduced concepts like the id, ego, and superego, and the importance of early childhood experiences. -   - **- \*\*Main Idea\*\*:** Freud believed that much of our behavior is influenced by unconscious motives and unresolved conflicts from childhood. He emphasized the role of the unconscious mind in shaping personality and behavior. - - **- \*\*Methods\*\*:** Techniques such as free association (relying on spontaneous responses to reveal unconscious thoughts), dream analysis, and exploration of childhood experiences. - 1\. \*\*Id\*\*: This part is all about wanting things right away, like a baby who cries when it's hungry. It's driven by basic needs and desires. - - 2\. \*\*Ego\*\*: This part tries to handle reality. It decides how to get what you want in a way that makes sense and is acceptable in the real world. - - 3\. \*\*Super Ego\*\*: This is like a voice inside that tells you what's right or wrong based on rules and values you've learned from parents and society. - - So, the \*\*Id\*\* wants things, the \*\*Ego\*\* figures out how to get them, and the \*\*Super Ego\*\* makes sure the way you go about it is right. - ***[4. \*\*Humanistic Approach\*\*:]*** - **- \*\*Overview\*\*:** Humanistic psychology emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and the inherent goodness of people. It focuses on individual potential and self-improvement. -   - **- \*\*Key Figures\*\*:** - \- \*\*Carl Rogers\*\*: Developed client-centered therapy, which emphasizes a nonjudgmental and supportive therapeutic environment where individuals can explore and realize their potential. - \- \*\*Abraham Maslow\*\*: Proposed the hierarchy of needs, culminating in self-actualization, where individuals strive to achieve their full potential and personal growth. -   - **- \*\*Main Idea\*\*:** Humanistic psychologists believe that people have an inherent drive to grow and improve. They focus on concepts such as self-esteem, self-concept, and personal fulfillment. -   - **- \*\*Methods\*\*:** Emphasis on personal experiences and self-reports, using therapy approaches that focus on empathy, unconditional positive regard, and the therapeutic relationship. ***5. \*\*Social-Cognitive Approach\*\*:*** - **- \*\*Overview\*\*:** Social-cognitive psychology examines how people's thoughts, beliefs, and social interactions influence their behavior. -   - **- \*\*Key Figure\*\*:** - \- \*\*Albert Bandura\*\*: Known for his work on social learning theory and the concept of observational learning (learning by watching others). He demonstrated that people can learn behaviors through observing and imitating others. -   - **- \*\*Main Idea\*\*:** This approach combines cognitive and social factors to understand behavior. It emphasizes the role of cognitive processes (like beliefs and expectations) and social influences (like modeling and social interactions) in shaping behavior. -   - **- \*\*Methods\*\*:** Experiments and observational studies, such as Bandura\'s Bobo doll experiment, which investigated how children learn aggression through observation. -   - Each of these approaches offers a unique perspective on understanding human behavior and mental processes.