Ethics in Research with People Notes PDF

Ethics in Research with People Chapter 3 (pp. 59-79) and Chapter 4 (p. 136) PSY 203 Research Methods M. Swisher 1  What are past human ethics violations in research What are protections for human T...

Ethics in Research with People Chapter 3 (pp. 59-79) and Chapter 4 (p. 136) PSY 203 Research Methods M. Swisher 1  What are past human ethics violations in research What are protections for human Topics for participants today What does an IRB do What are the 5 ethical principles we follow for human participants Research in psychology Psychologists conduct research to: 1. Address problems of societal importance (i.e., applied studies) 2. Explore what it means to be human (i.e., basic studies) Most research is conducted ethically and is approved prior to implementation by institutional review boards (IRB) and institutional animal care and use committees (IACUC) As psychologists, we need to treat our participants/subjects with respect The remaining ethical principles are formally included within the APA ethics code and the Belmont Report We’ll discuss 3 examples of studies with ethical violations 1. Milgram (1963) obedience study in social psychology 2. Tuskegee syphilis study (1932-1972) in medicine 3. Morris (2023) mental health study in technology M. Swisher 3 Motivation behind the Milgram (1963) obedience study During the Holocaust of World War II in Nazi Germany (1939-1945), the SS guards killed 6 million Jewish people and sympathizers There was disagreement about why the SS guards followed their orders Stanley Milgram (1963) designed an experiment ToTest obedience Research question: When would participants follow orders given by a superior and when would they not? Told participants study was about the effect of punishment on learning M. Swisher 4  Milgram (1963) obedience to authority experimental design Independent Dependent Sample Variable Variable Prediction Authority figure was seated close to Participants with participants/teachers closer authority Recruited Assess what the u figures will highest voltage participants level of shock the administer higher 6 - through a local levels of shock than participant/teacher Authority figure - newspaper ad participants with would administer was seated far authority figures away from seated farther away participants/teachers M. Swisher 5  Milgram (1963) obedience experiment procedure Box to apply shocks when lever is flipped Participant receives one real, mild 45-volt shock (this is ethically okay and feels like a poke or pinch) Participants assigned the Teacher (T) reads word pairs to learner (L) Experimenter role of teacher Teacher gave learner a cue word and 4 (E) was the options authority figure Confederates assigned the Learner would give the target word from the role of learner; confederate options or receive shock if wrong is an actor who knows Teacher increased the shock level for each about the study and incorrect response received no real shock M. Swisher 6 Milgram (1963) obedience to authority results When (at what shock level) participants stopped obeying the authority figure Obedience to authority aspect: Learner complained about pain from shock, heart condition, and pleaded with the teacher to let him stop Authority figure would calmly tell the teaches to continute and increase shock level Dependent variable: The highest level of shock a teacher would administer G 65% of the participants continued up to the strongest shock that they thought might lead to death M. Swisher 7 What did the participants (teachers) do? Participants were visibly uncomfortable with continuing to shock the learner (refer to picture at right), and yet, they continued to follow orders Now, we try to minimize the stress that the participants feels as a result of study Sometimes we risk ecological validity in minimizing stress within an experiment that would otherwise occur in the natural conditions Most people claimed they would never act like the SS guards On a much smaller scale, and with low stakes, they did M. Swisher 8  Question 1 What was an ethics violation in the Milgram (1963) obedience study? 1. The authority figure harmed the participants by using electric shock on them 2. Participants were coerced into participating in the study with large amounts of money about counseling service) O 3. There was no informed consent (debriefed but no tat into 4. Milgram did not use the appropriate experimental design to assess his research question M. Swisher 9 Why we have ethical protections in place for human research In Mason county, Alabama (1932- 1972), medical researchers conducted a longitudinal study 399 men with syphilis were compared with 201 uninfected men The participants were promised treatment for bad blood but were never given any treatment They weren’t even told that Syphilis By 1945 (13 years after the study started), penicillin was known to be an effective treatment and was available M. Swisher 10  Tuskegee syphilis study experimental design Subject Variable Dependent Sample Variable Prediction Men with syphilis Participants with Recruited Assess the syphilis will participants from health of both experience poorer a vulnerable groups of health outcomes population participants than participants Men without without syphilis syphilis M. Swisher 11 Tuskegee Syphilis Study Now the Tuskegee Health Benefit Program provides lifetime benefits to the widows and children of the men from the study The men participated in the study in exchange for monthly payments and a daily meal The National Research Act (1974) established the rule that all federally-funded research involving human participants must be approved by an (IRB) Families of syphilis study victims receive apology from Institutional Review Board President Clinton M. Swisher 12 Recent example of human research ethical violations Morris, R. (6 January, 2023) who is in tech (created AirBnB) and conducted a study in counseling psychology without knowing about psychology Their research question was whether they could replace mental health professionals with AI chatbots on a nonprofit mental health app, Koko Koko primarily serves teenagers (i.e., a vulnerable population) https://twitter.com/RobertRMorris/status/1611450197707464706?s=20&t=7wA78 nMPcf1mRlnVPjYW7w M. Swisher 13  Koko AI study experimental design Independent Dependent Sample Variable Variable Prediction Clients chat with artificial Assess the mental Participants will Recruited intelligence (AI) prefer faster health satisfaction response times from participants from with mental health AI to slower a vulnerable services of both response times from Clients chat with groups of population a mental health participants a licensed professional psychologist M. Swisher 14 Technology in psychology Study method GPT-3 generated automatic responses that therapists could choose to send to recipient messages Around 30,000 messages received automated messages “Participants” didn’t know they were receiving automated messages from AI Results Higher ratings (unspecified) for AI messages than human messages Shorter message response time (latency) from therapists due to AI Participants debriefed and didn’t like messages from AI M. Swisher 15 Human ethics violations in the study The people seeking mental health services on Koko did not know that they were involved in a study No informed consent Deception used and not explained until after The therapists knew the AI chat was in use but were not the intended participants You cannot determine that your own study is exempt Only an IRB can do that Still need IRB approval (or exemption) when using something for anything other Using vulnerable populations and having greater than than educational purposes minimal risk as is expected in a therapeutic environment automatically means that this study would have received full board review M. Swisher 16 Belmont Report Common Rule Principles 1979 Respect for Persons Created on 18 April, 1979 Informed consent and surrogate consent Named after the Belmont Conference Privacy and confidentiality Center in Elkridge, MD Protection of participants (especially vulnerable populations) purpose is oversight of Research Beneficence Risk/Benefit analysis 3 basic ethical principles relevant to Experimental Design human research Qualifications of PI 1. Respect for persons 2. Beneficence Justice 3. Justice Subject selection Inclusion/exclusion Recruitment M. Swisher 17  What ethics committees (IRB & IACUC) consider for research proposals 5 guiding general principles for APA ethics code Beneficence and Fidelity and responsibility Integrity nonmaleficence Contribute to research on Determine benefits and costs social issues Do not commit data fraud to participant Behave professionally Report all collected data Minimize harm -Disclose participant risks Respect for people’s rights Justice and dignity Do not disclose personally Treat participants fairly identifying participant Read the current literature information Compensate participants for Code participant data so you their time don’t know who they are M. Swisher 18 What ethics committees (IRB & IACUC) consider for research proposals These are the 5 guidelines for the more specific APA code of ethics A. Beneficence and nonmaleficence Psychologists consider the benefits and costs of research while minimizing harm Welfare of participant is the goal Two general rules: 1. Do not harm - 2. Maximize benefits and minimize harm (i.e., risk-benefit analysis) - - - B. Fidelity and responsibility C. Integrity D. Justice E. Respect for people’s rights and dignity M. Swisher 19 Principle A. Beneficence and Nonmaleficence Maximizing benefits and minimizing harm Risk/Harm Benefit/Utility Most Research is very invasive, and Research will help the participant directly participants may feel distressed as well as others 4 e.g., Asking them to recall traumatic e.g., Generating a new therapeutic Sevents technique for - trauma survivors Intermediate Research is minimally invasive, and Research will not help the participant participants may feel uncomfortable directly but will help others e.g., Asking them to answer questions e.g., Generate new- diagnostic tool about their-medical history Least Participant may feel bored Research will not help the participant and o e.g., Asking them to click on visually- no obvious social relevance or applications presented stimuli M. Swisher 20  Question 2 A researcher designed a study in which there are significant advantages - for participating in the study and only mild risks such as boredom. What is the guiding principle of APA ethics that this researcher followed? O 1. Beneficence and nonmaleficence 2. Fidelity and responsibility 3. Integrity 4. Justice M. Swisher 21 What ethics committees (IRB & IACUC) consider for research proposals These are the 5 guidelines for the more specific APA code of ethics A. Beneficence and nonmaleficence B. Fidelity and responsibility Researchers try to add knowledge to aid society, demonstrate professionalism, and tell participants the truth about potential risks (informed consent) C. Integrity D. Justice E. Respect for people’s rights and dignity M. Swisher 22 Principle B. Fidelity and Responsibility Researchers must maintain transparency with participants Informed consent 1. Tell participants they can withdraw from study before, during, or after participation 2. free from Coercion Don’t give potential participants an offer they can’t refuse; don’t use force Take extra precautions not to coerce vulnerable populations 3. Make information about nature of experiment easy to understand 4. Avoid overstating the application of research M. Swisher 23  Principle B. Fidelity and Responsibility Telling participants about research - Informed Consent Participating in Debriefing experiment Occurs before participation in Occurs after participation in experiment experiment Told about general nature of study Told about real purpose of study Procedure described Deception explained Chance to ask questions Chance to ask questions Experiment timeline M. Swisher 24 Principle B. Fidelity and Responsibility Saying “yes” to participate in research Consent Assent (or surrogate consent) Individual is of alegal age Individual is not of legal age or has Research purpose is fully explained diminished capacity in a language the individual can Parents or caregiver or advocate understand agree(s) to allow the individual to Signs informed consent form participate in the study Research purpose is fully explained in a language the individual can understand M. Swisher 25  Question 3 A researcher did not tell participants in the informed consent that they would feel significant distress about making morality judgments based on real court cases. What principle did the researcher violate? 1. Respect for people’s rights and dignity O 2. Fidelity and responsibility 3. Integrity 4. Justice M. Swisher 26 What ethics committees (IRB & IACUC) consider for research proposals These are the 5 guidelines for the more specific APA code of ethics A. Beneficence and nonmaleficence B. Fidelity and responsibility C. Integrity Researchers should be honest and not make up or manipulate data D. Justice E. Respect for people’s rights and dignity M. Swisher 27 Principle C. Integrity Deception in research Deception is any distortion of or withholding of fact with the purpose of misleading others Do not deceive about physical harm Explain deception as early as possible Consent to conceal : : Tell participants in advance about deception Why use deception? Sometimes researchers must use deception to find out how people behave naturally When can deception be used? 1. The research is important 2. There are no alternatives 3. There is no foreseeable harm M. Swisher 28  Question 4 A lab assistant was supposed to run 10 participants in a study by the end of the day, but the lab assistant wasn’t feeling well and needed to leave early. The lab assistant copied a few files from previous participants, changed some of the data in the files, and renamed the files as though they came from different, real participants. What is the guiding principle of APA ethics that this lab assistant violated? 1. Beneficence and nonmaleficence 2. Fidelity and responsibility O 3. Integrity 4. Justice M. Swisher 29 What ethics committees (IRB & IACUC) consider for research proposals These are the 5 guidelines for the more specific APA code of ethics A. Beneficence and nonmaleficence B. Fidelity and responsibility C. Integrity D. Justice Psychologists should be fair to participants, free from bias, and competent, and participants must benefit from findings E. Respect for people’s rights and dignity M. Swisher 30 Principle D. Justice What is fair? Who ought to receive the benefits of research and bear its burdens? Cannot entirely sample from vulnerable populations for participants when other populations also could be studied for phenomenon Use fair (i.e., random) selection of participants when possible An injustice occurs when an entitled benefit is denied or when a burden is imposed without cause Tuskegee syphilis study injustices a. Disadvantaged group used (inadequate access to medical care) b. Untreated disease affects many populations c. Available treatment not provided M. Swisher 31 Question 5 What is/are the human ethics violation(s) in the Tuskegee syphilis study? 1. Participants were coerced 2. Participants were not informed of the risks of participation in the study (i.e., informed consent) 3. The experimenters did not minimize harm and administer the existing, effective treatment for syphilis to participants O 4. All of these M. Swisher 32  Principle D. Justice How to be a competent and ethical researcher 1 2 3 4 5 Pilot (test out) Get to your Be respectful of Start the session your experiment session early to Follow your your participants with informed before using real have all your standard, written and put them at consent and take participants and materials ready protocol ease your time with it role play and organized 6 7 8 9 Be alert and respond to Be thoughtful about the Remind participants distress in participants by debriefing, explain not to talk to others Thank participants for dismissing them and your study simply, and about the study and their involvement in recommending they always debrief about when you’ll your study and mean it follow up with counseling participants expect results services M. Swisher 33  Question 6 As part of the suggestions to be a competent and ethical researcher, what should we do when we have written a new experiment that we are ready to run? 1. Run our full set of participants without testing out the program 2. Assume that the program works as intended if we don’t get any failure to compile messages O 3. Test out the program before running our full set of participants 4. Assume that everyone will respond to our manipulation as intended M. Swisher 34 What ethics committees (IRB & IACUC) consider for research proposals These are the 5 guidelines for the more specific APA code of ethics A. Beneficence and nonmaleficence B. Fidelity and responsibility C. Integrity D. Justice E. Respect for people’s rights and dignity Psychologists should maintain participant confidentiality and anonymity M. Swisher 35 Principle E. Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity People should be treated as autonomous agents who have free Pregnant individuals (the fetus) will Neonates They can make their own choices Minors (under age 18) People who have been historically People with diminished autonomy disenfranchised due to race/ethnicity, religion, gender, or sexual orientation are entitled to protection Prisoners These are people who might not be Persons who are institutionalized able to make their own decisions independently People with an intellectual or physical This includes people who might feel disability pressured to be in a study Economically or educationally e.g., Vulnerable populations disadvantaged persons Those who are very sick M. Swisher 36 Principle E. Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity Keeping information private and using safeguards Confidentiality (reader doesn’t know) Others cannot identify a person by their data (e.g., no name or ID) Anonymity (researcher doesn’t know) No identifying characteristics are recorded Impossible for researcher to identify participant M. Swisher 37 Principle E. Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity When can confidentiality be violated? 1. If the participant intends to harm themselves or others Legally obligated to intervene to minimize harm to others (or self) 2. If the participant is being abused. Again, legally obligated to intervene to minimize harm 3. If participant is a minor (and only provided assent), legal guardians have the right to see data M. Swisher 38 What ethics committees (IRB & IACUC) consider for research proposals These are the 5 guidelines for the more specific APA code of ethics A. Beneficence and nonmaleficence Psychologists consider the benefits and costs of research while minimizing harm B. Fidelity and responsibility Researchers try to add knowledge to aid society, demonstrate professionalism, and tell participants the truth about potential risks (informed consent) C. Integrity Researchers should be honest and not make up or manipulate data D. Justice Psychologists should be fair to participants, free from bias, and competent, and participants must benefit from findings E. Respect for people’s rights and dignity Psychologists should maintain participant confidentiality and anonymity M. Swisher 39  Question 7 How can researchers provide respect for persons within their experiment? 1. Perform a risk-benefit analysis to be sure that participating in the study will benefit them more than the time it costs O 2. Label participants with code names instead of their real names to protect their anonymity 3. Outline clear inclusion and exclusion criteria before selecting participants 4. Keep their certifications up to date M. Swisher 40 Answer How can researchers provide respect for persons within their experiment? Privacy and confidentiality Give code names instead of using participants’ real names, keep the participants name key in a protected file that only the PI has, and/or only report anonymous data M. Swisher 41 What is the institutional review board (IRB)? Every researcher must have IRB approval before conducting studies Must have IRB approval for a study supported by grants They judge the othical (not scientific) merit of a study IRB approval isn’t required for the in-class “experiment” because: For educational purposes No deception Not publishing results M. Swisher 42 Levels of review for the IRB 1. Exempt Less than “minimal risk” Fits one of the 6 exempt categories (e.g., research with de-identified records or anonymous surveys) 2. Expedited No greated than minimal risk Fits one of the 9 expedited review categories (e.g., collection of biospecimens by noninvasive means, research with existing documents/records collected for non-research purposes in which subjects are identified) M. Swisher 43 Levels of review for the IRB 3. Full board more than minimal risk Not covered under other review categories For example: Interventions involving physical or emotional discomfort or sensitive data Research conducted with vulnerable populations fits this category as well Who serves on the IRB? Faculty members from various areas, including psychology 1-2 members from outside the university with no vested interest Expedited review is usually done by one IRB member M. Swisher 44  Question 8 A researcher wants to ask teenage participants about their experiences with childhood trauma. This information could help counselors and social workers provide better care for this population. What level of IRB review would this proposal receive? O1. Full 2. Expedited 3. Exempt 4. Average M. Swisher 45  1. Informed consent 2. Freedom from coercion 3. Protection from physical and psychological harm 4. Protection of privacy, confidentiality, or anonymity 5. The risk-benefit rule 6. Debriefing Key themes in ethical research M. Swisher 46 Ethics in Research with Nonhumans Chapter 3 (pp. 59-79) PSY 203 Research Methods M. Swisher 1  What does an IACUC do Additional topics for today What are the 3 ethical principles for nonhuman animal research M. Swisher 2 Long Evans hooded rat What do all these animals have in common? Capuchin monkey Rock pigeon http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapajus_apella M. Swisher 3 Question 1 What do rats, pigeons, and monkeys have in common? O 1. They are mammals 2. They are vertebrates 3. They can fly 4. They are invertebrates M. Swisher 4 Ethical guidelines in nonhuman animal research BACB 10.18 Animal Research Behavior analysts who conduct research involving animals treat them humanely and are in compliance with the Federal Animal Welfare Act. APA 8.09 Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research a) Psychologists acquire, care for, use, and dispose of animals in compliance with current federal, state, and local laws and regulations, and with professional standards. b) Psychologists trained in research methods and experienced in the care of laboratory animals supervise all procedures involving animals and are responsible for ensuring appropriate consideration of their comfort, health, and humane treatment. c) Psychologists ensure that all individuals under their supervision who are using animals have received instruction in research methods and in the care, maintenance, and handling of the species being used, to the extent appropriate to their role. M. Swisher 5 Ethical guidelines in nonhuman animal research APA 8.09 Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research continued (d) Psychologists make reasonable efforts to Minimize the discomfort infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects. (e) Psychologists use a procedure subjecting animals to pain, stress, or deprivation only when an alternative procedure is unavailable and the goal is justified by its prospective scientific, educational, or applied value. (f) Psychologists perform surgical procedures under appropriate anesthesia and follow techniques to avoid infection and minimize pain during and after surgery. (g) When it is appropriate that an animal's life be terminated, psychologists proceed rapidly, with an effort to minimize pain and in accordance with accepted procedures. M. Swisher 6 Ensuring basic protections for nonhuman research subjects Vertebrate Animals: Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs) 1. Guided by Federal Animal Welfare Act (1985) and National Institutes of Health (NIH) guidelines 2. Considers both use and care (e.g., housing) 3. Set standard for use and care 4. Reviewers make ethical judgments about university research proposals M. Swisher 7 Research with nonhuman animals A. Ethical issues 1. Use of animals justified? 2. Human rights more important than animal rights? Glaberson (1999, August 18) https://www.nytimes.com/1999/08/18/us/legal-pioneers- seek-to-raise-lowly-status-of-animals.html B. Protections IACUCs consider 1. Vertebrate animals necessary? 2. Research original? 3. Number of animals to be used? 4. Pain, distress, discomfort? M. Swisher 8 Question 2 Which of these animals are most protected by the institutional animal care and use committee guidelines? 1. Cockroaches 2. Fruit flies 3. Crabs 4. Rats M. Swisher 9 Animal welfare organizations that provide oversight at Purdue 1. Purdue Animal Care and Use Committee (PACUC) Purdue’s IACUC 2. Laboratory Animal Program (LAP) 3. Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International (AAALAC) Independent from individual institutions Purdue has been accredited since 2006 M. Swisher 10 Purdue Animal Care and Use Committee (PACUC) 1. Reviews animal care and use protocols for potential ethical violations 2. Assures that animal care and use is performed in accordance with protocols 3. Provides training for maintaining and documenting regulatory compliance 4. Identifies facility deficits 5. To whom reports of “areas of concern” are made M. Swisher 11 Who PACUC members are Veterinarian Animal care staff Faculty member who conducts animal research Faculty member from a department outside Psychological Sciences Individual from the local community M. Swisher 12 Question 3 Which of the following does an IACUC do? 1. Determine whether the controls for extraneous variables in a proposal are adequate 2. Determine whether there are any potential ethical issues in a proposal 3. Determine whether rats or fish should be used based on a proposal 4. Determine whether the federal funding awarded to the principal investigator should be used on this proposal M. Swisher 13 Laboratory Animal Program (LAP) 1. Provide veterinary care 2. Assures that animal housing, environments, and husbandry practices are consistent with federal policies 3. Provides training in the performance of PACUC procedures 4. Assesses and remedies areas of concern, ensures that corrective actions are implemented, and documents that deficiencies have been corrected quickly M. Swisher 14 Question 4 Which of the following does the Laboratory Animal Program (LAP) do? 1. Deliver care for people who work with laboratory animals 2. Determine whether there are any potential ethical issues in a proposal 3. Assess workplace hazards for research assistants 4. Provide veterinary care for laboratory animals O M. Swisher 15 Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International (AAALAC) AAALAC is a private, nonprofit organization Promotes Humane treatment of animals in science through voluntary accreditation and assessment programs Institutions receiving AAALAC accreditation Comply with local, state, and federal laws that regulate animal research Achieve excellence in animal care and use when there is no alternative for the use of live animal models M. Swisher 16 Question 5 Which organization is independent of universities and determines whether laboratory facilities have met high standards of care for animal subjects? O 1. AAALAC 2. IACUC 3. LAP 4. REM M. Swisher 17 Qualifications for working with vertebrate animals 1. Must have an Animal Use Qualification Form on file with PACUC 2. Complete relevant Collaborative institutional training intitiative (CITI) online modules 3. Be listed on an approved protocol application submitted by a principal investigator (PI) A sample protocol application is available on the EVPRP’s website M. Swisher 18  Question 6 What do people need to do before they can work in a nonhuman research laboratory? O 1. Complete CITI training 2. Take a course in veterinary medicine 3. Nothing 4. Become a member of an IACUC M. Swisher 19 Three “R’s” of Ethically Responsible Animal Research (IACUC) Reduction = Use smallest number of animals Refinement = use methods to minimize pain and discomfort Replacement = use something other than vertebrates Invertebrates? Cell cultures? Computer modeling? M. Swisher 20  Three “R’s” of Ethically Responsible Animal Research (IACUC) Reduction Refinement Replacement Methods which Methods which Methods which minimize the minimize suffering avoid or replace the number of animals and improve animal use of live animals used per experiment welfare M. Swisher 21 PACUC’s Three R’s in Detail 1. Reduction refers to strategies that reduce the number of animals used Limit group size to minimum necessary for statistically significant data To know how many animals you need, conduct a statistical analysis to determine the correct sample size for valid results Use the same control group for multiple experiments Share tissues with other investigators (collaboration) Use within-subject designs Use newer instruments with better precision J M. Swisher 22 PACUC’s Three R’s continued 2. Refinement refers to Rat brain atlas changing experiments or procedures (e.g., anesthesia) to reduce pain or distress Improve surgical techniques Modify procedures to be less invasive, painful, or stressful Use new anesthetics and analgesics that provide reduced stress and faster recovery Modify animals’ habitat for environmental enrichment M. Swisher 23 Refinement: What enrichment is M. Swisher 24 PACUC’s Three R’s continued 3. Replacement is simply replacing the use of animals with non-animal techniques Use of cell culture techniques to replace animal incubation http://www.coriell.org/research-services/cell-culture/what-is-cell-culture Use of immunologic bench assays = test for antibodies Use of computer software to model the pharmacokinetics of drugs Purpose of the 3 R’s: to minimize animal use and pain or distress while achieving the critical scientific objectives that lead to advances in health and medicine M. Swisher 25 Question 7 Which of the 3 ethical principles of research with nonhuman animals is this an example of: A neuroscientist sacrificed their mice to retain their brain tissue for the effect of different diets on epilepsy, and researchers on nutrition retained the mice hearts? 1. Refinement 2. Replacement O 3. Reduction 4. Repair M. Swisher 26 Human Safety Radiological and Environmental Management (REM) the human safety aspect of nonhuman research Responsible for ensuring Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) compliance Responsible for maintaining a safe and healthy environment for staff, students, and visitors OSHA also ensures laboratory personnel are trained in proper Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) M. Swisher 27 Some examples of psychological research with nonhuman animals Chaser’s naming Jack and Jill Chaser knows the name of over 1,000 objects Jill asks “what color,” and Jack answers him https://youtu.be/omaHv5sxiFI https://youtu.be/W3NbRmIOnT0 M. Swisher 28 Additional Resources Understanding animal research: Why monkeys are used in research http://www.understandinganimalresearch.org.uk/the-animals/types-of- animals/research-using-monkeys/ Weatherall (2006) Report on the importance of nonhuman primate research for the prevention or treatment of diseases M. Swisher 29 Question 8 Which of the 3 ethical principles of research with nonhuman animals is this an example of: A toxicology researcher used cell cultures to model the effects of mercury? 1. Reduction 2. Refinement O 3. Replacement 4. Repair M. Swisher 30 Ways of Knowing Chapter 1 (pp. 3-15) PSY 203 Research Methods M. Swisher 1 Topics for today 1 2 3 4 Identify Understand Identify the 4 Understand how examples of the 5 placebo effects characteristics of peer review is a sources of the scientific part of the knowledge method scientific method M. Swisher 2 5 sources of knowledge 1. Authority with training in their area of interest 2. Common sense 3. Intuition 4. Rationalism 5. Empiricism M. Swisher 3 Sources of knowledge Ways of knowing Socrates Aristotle 1. Authority Some one influential an expert Downside of this is that it can discourage dissent e.g., Children parroting what their parents have said and doctors making diagnoses Prior to the Renaissance, questions about how the world works were answered by works of experts (e.g., Aristotle) M. Swisher 4 Arguments from authority about the way the world works reject empiricism “In the year of our Lord 1432, there arose a grievous quarrel among the brethren over the number of teeth in the mouth of a horse. For 13 days the disputation raged without ceasing. All the ancient books and chronicles were fetched out, and wonderful and ponderous erudition, such as was never before heard of in this region, was made manifest. At the beginning of the 14th day, a youthful friar of goodly bearing asked his learned superiors for permission to add a word, and straightaway to the wonderment of the disputants, whose deep wisdom he sore vexed, he beseeched them…to look in the open mouth of a horse and find answer to their questionings. At this…they flew upon him and smote his hip and thigh, and cast him out forthwith. For, said they, surely Satan hath tempted this bold neophyte to declare unholy and unheard-of ways of finding truth contrary to all the teachings of the fathers. After many days of grievous strife the dove of peace sat on the assembly, and they as one man, declaring the problem to be an everlasting mystery…so ordered the same writ down.” [Francis Bacon, quoted in Mees, 1934, p. 17] M. Swisher 5 Question 1 Which of the following people is arguing from authority? 1. Your uncle says his barber told him that taking aspirin cures restless leg syndrome 2. Your cousin says that her favorite Instagram influencer says that teeth whitening strips cause heavy metal toxicity 3. Your friend says that Dr. Anthony Fauci, director of the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, says that we should practice good hygiene to avoid getting sick 4. Gwyneth Paltrow, American actress, says that an energy sticker spray that her company goop produces protects people from psychological and emotional harm M. Swisher 6 Sources of knowledge Ways of knowing 2. Common sense Folk wisdom – what everyone knows; corroborated by personal experience e.g., The world is flat; geocentric solar system People accept things they think are true and ignore counter-examples Selectively attend to what fits 3. Intuition “Feeling of knowing” something but not quite sure where that knowledge came from; gut feeling The subjective experience that a particular piece of information is available in memory despite not being currently available to recall Knowledge that appears in consciousness without obvious deliberation M. Swisher 7 Common sense examples Folk wisdom is often contradictory Examples Problems with those examples 1. Absence makes the heart grow 1. Out of sight, out of mind fonder 2. Opposites attract 2. Birds of a feather flock together 3. The pen is mightier than the 3. Actions speak louder than words sword 4. It’s never too late to learn 4. Can’t teach an old dog new tricks 5. Don’t judge a book by its cover 5. Clothes make the man http://www.derekchristensen.com/1 Yesterday’s common sense is 5-pairs-of-contradictory-proverbs/ today’s nonsense M. Swisher 8 Question 2 Which of the following situations is an example of common sense? 1. Bianca always attempts to enter an elevator before the current occupants leave it 2. Louis knows not to touch a hot stove because it will burn his hand 3. Alexandra prefers to walk up the down escalator 4. Trevor thinks it is a good idea to skydive without proper equipment M. Swisher 9 Intuition examples Feeling of knowing based on familiarity Knowing how you know (not Knowing that (intuition) intuition) Knowing that dinosaurs died 65 In biology in third grade, your million years ago teacher Mr. Lookofsky told your Realize that two of your friends are class that dinosaurs were killed 65 upset with each other after million years ago when an asteroid watching their tense interaction hit Earth Sensing that you should store your Your friends told you that they were food in a high, secure location mad at each other and why while camping after seeing local Reading in a camping guide that bear activity you should store food in a cooler or in a bear box away from view of bears M. Swisher 10 Question 3 Which of the following descriptions is an example of intuition? 1. Adan had a gut feeling that Carmen was frustrated with her new job 2. Sierra had always been told not to walk under a ladder because it was bad luck 3. Nathan believes Dr. Greer, a urologist, that extraterrestrial beings are responsible for zero gravity 4. Bilal does not believe that astrological signs are predictive of personality characteristics because of his experiment M. Swisher 11 Sources of Knowledge Ways of Knowing 4. Rationalism If either premise is wrong, your A priori (before results) method; conclusion will be wrong knowledge derived from reasoning or logic A. A 2.0 GPA is required to graduate If given certain bits of information, B. Person X has graduated you can induce/infer something else from those bits of information C. Yields: Person X had at least a 2.0 GPA Deduction/inference Don’t need to independently verify D. All women are poor drivers inference E. Danica is a woman F. Yields: Danica is a poor driver M. Swisher 12 Question 4 Which of the following is an example of a rational argument? 1. 8.7 million species of life have been catalogued on Earth 2. Water gives life 3. Life emerged from water 4. Planets with water also have life; the Earth has water  The Earth has life M. Swisher 13 Faulty premises reach the wrong conclusion The response of the astronomer Francesco Sizzi to Galileo’s claim to have telescopically observed 4 large moons of Jupiter (refuting by argument, not by observation)—logic/rationalism “There are 7 windows in the head, 2 nostrils, 2 ears, 2 eyes, and a mouth; so in the heavens there are 2 favorable stars, 2 unpropitious, 2 luminaries, and Mercury alone undecided and indifferent. From which and many other similar phenomena of nature such as the 7 metals, etc.,…we gather then the number of planets is necessarily 7…Besides…other ancient nations, as well as modern Europeans, have adopted the division of the week into 7 days, and have named them from the 7 planets; now if we increase the number of planets, this whole system falls to the ground…Moreover, the satellites are invisible to the naked eye and therefore can have no influence on the earth and therefore would be useless and therefore do not exist.” [from Holton & Roller, 1958, p. 160] M. Swisher 14 Sources of Knowledge Ways of Knowing 5. Empiricism It’s like saying “let’s take a look” Looking in the horse’s mouth to Knowledge from experience or observation count his teeth When a field is empirical, it relies Galileo observing Jupiter’s moons on data from observations through his telescope Observations repeated by independent observers Personal experiences de- emphasized Testimonials (personal experience) ignored or heavily discounted because they are heavily selective and/or incomplete M. Swisher 15 Question 5 Which of the following is an example of empiricism? 1. Lana rode her bicycle on the road when she saw that the sidewalk ended 2. Yusef had a gut feeling that his manager had a big announcement to make at the meeting 3. Adam likes rides and food trucks and assumed that he would also enjoy the fair 4. Mona observed more people recycling in a park after they saw someone else recycle M. Swisher 16 Ways of knowing example Flat Earthers via The Daily Show https://youtu.be/pwKztOAd_BU (3:55) What are the ways of knowing they use in this clip? Authority Testimonials Individual experience (can’t feel yourself spinning) Rationalism (toilet water isn’t falling out in Australia, therefore no gravity, therefore Earth is not round) M. Swisher 17  Experiment with anxious public speakers Treatment Participants who are afraid of public speaking Systematic desensitization Pretest for Inactive sugar cube Posttest for anxiety (placebo) anxiety No treatment M. Swisher 18 Placebo effects example e.g., Systematic desensitization therapy versus no treatment versus a pill to decrease overall anxiety for public speaking Percent reporting improvement Desensitization Group 85% Inactive Pill Group 50% Placebo effect No Treatment Group 22% Desensitization group improved and received actual treatment, but neither the Inactive Pill nor the No Treatment group should have improved M. Swisher 19  Self-esteem experiment All participants wanted to improve What tape said & their self-esteem and/or memory what it improved subliminal messages esteem & Tape label matched esteem memory & memory Tape label didn’t match subliminal messages esteem & memory memory & esteem M. Swisher 20 Expectancies and subliminal messages – Placebo effect Marketing: improve memory or self-esteem Tape Content Self-Report Label Actual Result Why University of Washington study Esteem Esteem Improved esteem Treatment works or Participants listened to tapes for a few expectations weeks Told experimenters how they felt Esteem Memory Improved esteem Expectations The tapes were of pleasant music, the Memory Esteem Improved memory Expectations ocean, etc. Memory Memory Improved memory Treatment works or Participants reported that they expectations improved on what they thought they should improve Label = what the tape said it was for No improvement due to subliminal Actual = what the embedded message messages in the tape really was M. Swisher 21 Question 6 Fish oil is the treatment they’re testing out Sugar pill is a placebo What counts as a placebo effect? 1. Participants are told that they’re taking a real treatment to reduce the severity of their anxiety, and they report feeling less anxious even though they took a sugar pill (i.e., placebo) 2. Participants are told that they’re taking a real treatment to reduce the severity of their anxiety, and they report feeling more anxious after getting the real treatment 3. Participants are told that they’re taking a real treatment to reduce the severity of their anxiety, and they report feeling less anxious after getting the real treatment 4. Participants are told that they’re taking a real treatment to reduce the severity of their anxiety, and they report no difference in anxiety because they took a sugar pill (i.e., placebo) M. Swisher 22 4 characteristics of the scientific method 1. Asks questions that can be answered 2. Prioritizes empirical evidence 3. Makes data publicly available (i.e., publishing peer-reviewed articles and replicating experiments) 4. The claims and predictions are falsifiable (i.e., self- correcting mechanism) M. Swisher 23 Characteristics of the scientific method truth, not Truth Involves a Self corrective method 1. Empirical questions/solvable problems a. Data-driven questions that can be answered by collecting data (and are falsifiable) b. Questions that cannot be answered empirically are not topics for science c. e.g., Is there a genetic component to intelligence? vs. Where is the soul? Science assumes determinism M. Swisher 24 Characteristics of the scientific method 2. Systematic empiricism a. Collecting data in a structured manner in order to evaluate claims or hypotheses b. Distinguish between Different points of view e.g., Waitstaff (correctly) assume that splitting the bill will result in a larger overall amount of money left as a tip than leaving the itemized bill on one ticket with one total value Keep track of the amount/proportion of gratuity left compared to the bill for split bills (one group) versus whole bill (another group) Determine if there is any difference in the amount/proportion of gratuity between the groups M. Swisher 25 Characteristics of the scientific method 3. Publicly available information a. Methods and data are objective = publicly available (especially to other scientists unlike Lesné and Asche) b. Replication – provide enough information about methods so that other scientists can reproduce your methods and possibly get your same results (replicating the findings) Might not get same findings when replicating procedure c. Peer review – before an article is published, it undergoes review by independent experts (i.e., evaluation) d. If there are conceptual, methodological, etc. problems with the manuscript, then it will not be published e. Be wary of scientists bypassing peer review who go straight to the media (e.g., cold fusion) M. Swisher 26 Question 7 Which of the following is an example of publicly available information? 1. An expert gives no evidence for their claims 2. Researchers published all their experimental data on the Open Science Foundation data repository 3. An authority figure states that the claim was originally made in an ancient philosophy text 4. A salesperson says that 88% of consumers who tried their product loved it M. Swisher 27 Scientific fraud Data falsification Plagiarism http://www.anu.edu.au/files/styles/anu_full_920_518/public/guidance/Plagiarism%20spectrum.j pg?itok=1uIIHctw https://nyunews.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/false.jpg M. Swisher 28 Alzheimer’s research and amyloid beta (Aβ) protein deposits Piller (2022, July 21) Blots on a field Sylvain Lesné is a neuroscientist who first determined that the Aβ*56 clumps/plaques cause Alzheimer’s disease in rats in a Nature paper from 2006 They haven’t been sharing their original images with others who want to investigate claims of image tampering Matthew Shrag is a neuroscientist and physician who discovered that Lesné’s images had been altered Science magazine investigated the claims of fraud M. Swisher 29 How does this impact current Alzheimer’s research? In the 6-month investigation, 100s of images seem to have been altered Over 70 images had been altered in Lesné’s papers Images were pieced together from different photos in different experiments Perhaps these images were altered because the actual results were not the predicted results Wasted NIH funding (around $287 millions in 2021 alone) and time and effort from neuroscientists studying Alzheimer’s who integrate Lesné’s findings Might have misdirected Alzheimer’s research for the past 16 years Very few researchers/studies have even found evidence linking amyloid beta to Alzheimer’s disease Looking for a cure for Alzheimer’s and focusing on the wrong cause M. Swisher 30 Peer versus non-peer-reviewed articles If research isn’t peer reviewed, then no one checked the method and justification (i.e., symposia) Peer review is when experts in that content area review research (i.e., published articles) Percent of articles concluding passive smoking is “unhealthy” 1. Articles from symposia 2. Random sample of published (peer-reviewed) articles = 65% Conflicts of interest (COI) are when someone involved in research could receive financial or social gain from a specific outcome 95.1% of researchers without a COI found that e-cigarettes were harmful 39.4% of researchers with a COI found that e- Pisinger et al. (2019) cigarettes were harmful https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ypmed.2018.12.011 M. Swisher 31 How do we check for good science? Peer review Other experts in the same field (hopefully same area) review a written manuscript submitted for publication What do they look for? a) Rationale for conducting experiment makes sense and follows from literature b) IRB approval prior to conducting research’s c) Strong methodology for the experimental procedure d) Written text and graphical/tabled data match as well as appropriate statistical measures to analyze data e) Conclusions follow from method and results f) Clear contribution to the literature M. Swisher 32 Peer review process Author writes manuscript Editor sends copy to and submits to journal peers for reviewing Conduct experiment Peer Review Process Write paper 1. Paper accepted, published, and article Peer reviewers check Send to journal listed in databases for manuscript for accuracy other researchers to find and assess validity of Reviewed by 3-5 experts 2. Paper requires revisions or research methodology 3. Paper rejected Manuscript decision M. Swisher 33 Characteristics of the scientific method Refer also to Retraction Watch for a list of retracted, published articles https://retractionwatch.com/ 4. Need to be able to collect data that agree with hypothesis as well as data that disagree with hypothesis Hypothesis: There is a correlation between thimerosal (preservative in MMR vaccine) and autism diagnosis Confirmation: More children who received MMR vaccine have autism than children who did not receive vaccine Disconfirmation: Fewer or an equal number of children who received MMR vaccine have autism than those who did not This is the self-correcting mechanism The original Wakefield et al. (1998) article claiming vaccines cause autism → M. Swisher 34  Self-correcting mechanism Belluz (2019, March 5) Research fraud catalyzed the anti-vaccination movement. Let’s not repeat history. https://www.vox.com/2018/2/27/17057990/andrew-wakefield-vaccines-autism-study What are some of the reasons The Lancet retracted the Wakefield et al. (1998) article? Financial conflict of Financial conflict Financial conflict Poor methodology: Poor interest 1: Wakefield of interest 2: of interest 3: Wakefield relied methodology: received ($230/hour) Wakefield argued Wakefield paid upon reports from Wakefield used 11 for consultations from for single-disease children at his son’s parents, who could children in a case lawyers who wanted vaccines, for which 10th birthday party have suffered from study, had no to bring a lawsuit he had a patent, and to donate their blood recall bias for events control group, and against the vaccine against combination for his research months/years ago falsified data in manufacturers vaccines parent reports Deer (BMJ, 2011) https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.c5347 M. Swisher 35 Self-correcting mechanism when an article was published but shouldn’t have been There were 2 studies – the one from 1998 included 12 children M. Swisher 36 Self-correcting mechanism The measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine is given when a child is about 18 months old Same time when signs of autism can reliably be diagnosed It’s a matter of correlation, not causation In more than 10 years of research with >600,000 participants, this study has not been replicated See also Gorski (2010), Novella (2010), and Rau and Andrade (2011) Wakefield lost his license Unfortunately, people still use this as evidence that vaccines cause autism M. Swisher 37 Question 8 What is the self-correcting mechanism of science? 1. All experiments are published regardless of scientific merit 2. Only bad experiments are published 3. Research is checked for scientific merit before publication by experts and removed if problematic 4. Financial conflicts of interest are ignored M. Swisher 38 Pseudoscience Chapter 1 (pp. 8-14) PSY 203 Research Methods M. Swisher 1 Topics for today Understand how the scientific method involves falsifiability Identify the characteristics of pseudoscience Identify problems with personal experience Identify the goals of research in psychology Understand the difference between pseudoscience and good science M. Swisher 2 Goals of research in psychology Why we conduct research Describe Predict Explain Apply M. Swisher 3 Graff, R. B., & Karsten, A. M. (2012). Assessing preferences of individuals with developmental disabilities: A survey of current practices. Behavior Analysis in Practice, 5(2), 37-48. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03391822 Description in psychology We know that people will work for items that they like We need to ask them about items that they like Give them a survey See how frequently they select each item See how much time they spend doing each activity This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA M. Swisher 4  Prediction in psychology We find these are a person’s preferred activities in order of most to least Attending concerts Watching Netflix Playing video games Reading books We predict that person will work the most to attend a concert Bullock, C., & Normand, M. P. (2006). The effects of a high-probability instruction sequence and response-independent reinforcer delivery on child compliance. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 39, 495-499. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2006.115-05 M. Swisher 5  Explanation in psychology We’ll give the person tickets to the next convocation to see a concert if they pass all their courses with A’s this semester If the person maintains excellent grades, we can use allocation and motivation to go to a concert to explain the change in behavior This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC-ND Baum, W. M. (2012). Rethinking reinforcement: Allocation, induction, and contingency. Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 97, 101-124. https://doi.org/10.1901/jeab.2012.97-101 Miguel, C. F. (2013). Jack Michael’s motivation. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 29, 3-11. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03393119 M. Swisher 6 Application in psychology Take what we know from a basic study and use it With other populations In other settings Maybe can use it to help keep employees motivated for large tasks at work Maritim, D. K. (2016). The influence of positive reinforcement on employee motivation at the Nakuru County government. IOSR Journal of Business and Management, 18, 16-19. https://doi.org/10.9790/487X-1809021619 M. Swisher 7 Sunk cost effect is when people put in a little effort or money and choose to continue to put in more effort or money when they have an option to stop or continue. How does the sunk cost effect correspond to the following goals of research in psychology? 1. Describe People continue to put money and effort into something if they’ve already started 2. Predict If people have to invest their own money into a new business venture, then they will continue to invest money if they’re given a choice to stop after a few months 3. Explain Investing a little money at first makes it seem like people are wasting that money if they stop when they’re later given a choice; it’s the psychological justification for continued investment 4. Apply Women who invest their own money into a multilevel marketing scheme like Scentsy will continue to see that product for a long time because that initial investment is difficult to walk away from M. Swisher 8 Question 1 Of which goal of research in psychology is this an example: If people score higher on the narcissism spectrum, then they will use more first- person language when communicating? 1. Describe 2. Predict 3. Explain 4. Apply M. Swisher 9 What is pseudoscience? Pretends/presents itself as scientific Uses sciency methods, theories, and assumptions that are similar to but not exactly the scientific method Tries to be convincing rather than true Agenda to convince people of true (i.e., money, fame, respect) Therapeutic Touch to correct/balance energy fields It is not just “bad science” 1/83 studies showed confirmation of Therapeutic Touch It is using science-like methods to predictions; offered $1.1 million in 1998 to anyone who deliberately mislead could replicate the original experiment M. Swisher 10 What does pseudoscience look like? Focuses on evidence for (i.e., confirming) rather than evidence against (i.e., disconfirming) Gathers anecdotes or testimonials Suffers from confirmation bias Untestable (or results not replicable) Always another explanation for results not replicating Methods can’t be operationalized, and hypothesis can’t be falsified Stubborn Doesn’t change with contradictory evidence This is the opposite of the goal of the scientific method M. Swisher 11  Television Magazines Where do you find Newspapers pseudoscience? These sources don’t review the Internet validity of the methods/procedure There’s no peer review Where you don’t find Quality control by the peer review pseudoscience = peer-reviewed process scientific journals M. Swisher 12 “Evidence” for claims in pseudoscience 1. Personal anecdotes/personal experience/testimonials 2. Appeal to authority (but authority is person with no real expertise) 3. Arguments by exclusion 4. Cherry-picking data or only presenting confirming evidence and hiding disconfirming evidence M. Swisher 13 Question 2 Which of the following is taken as evidence in pseudoscience? 1. Mariela says that acupuncture has helped to balance her life force 2. Jamie says that comedian Joe Rogan uses cryotherapy to reduce his aches and pains 3. Heather says that thousands of people have used crystal healing and that a majority benefit without disclosing those who don’t 4. All of these M. Swisher 14 5 Characteristics of pseudoscience 1. Uses language of science and mimics the procedure 2. Shifts burden of proof when claims are challenged 3. If phenomenon is currently unexplained, they say this absence of evidence “supports my position” (argument by exclusion) 4. Complains of shunning because the view is not in the mainstream 5. Misuses rules of evidence M. Swisher 15  Characteristics of pseudoscience 1. Uses language of science And mimics the procedure “Creationscience” – creationism used to get courses taught in schools Now it’s intelligent design Testimonials used as evidence Systematic empiricism used (i.e., Testimonials and appeal to authority science) used (i.e., pseudoscience) Astronomy: How physics affects Astrology: Planet/star alignment planet/star alignment influences personality Psychology: How personality traits Phrenology: Bumps on the skull influence behavior in social situations influence mental abilities and character Chemistry: Elements interact in Alchemy: A seed of gold will magically predictable ways grow a Philosophers’ Tree Biology: Evolution determines traits Intelligent design: Omniscient Creator determines traits M. Swisher 16 Problems with personal experiences (“testimonials”) A. Information is highly selective e.g., People hear about successes (or confirmation), Not failures “34 people reported improvement” rather than 66 reported no change You only have incomplete information so you can’t reach a valid conclusion This can happen with respect to research, too Researchers try to demonstrate empirically that a specific therapy or intervention works, but people often are swayed by the opinion of others Base decision on emotional, not rational, conclusions M. Swisher 17 Testimonials Facilitated communication (FC) Douglas Bicklen brought FC to the United States and developed the Institute on Communication and Inclusion at Syracuse University Purpose is to help people who don’t speak to communicate with others Facilitator guides the client’s hand/finger to letters or words on communication board and types out words The main evidence for the success of facilitated communication is testimonials from clients’ caregivers/parents FC is an example of pseudoscience There is no independent evidence that the information produced during a facilitated communication session comes from the client Test of facilitated communication https://youtu.be/2Y3MvSZOazk (1:09) ABC News “Miracle or Nightmare?” report https://youtu.be/OQgK4L9cWHQ (6:30) M. Swisher 18  Facilitated communication testimonials, not empiricism Vyse (2015, March 11). Facilitated communication: The fad that will not die https://skepticalinquirer.org/exclusive/facilitated-communication-the-fad-that-will-not-die/ Facilitator Client Claim: The client (and not the facilitator) is the author of the messages Condition 1 Condition 2 Different Same Confirming evidence: The client (and facilitator) type what the client saw Disconfirming evidence: The client (and facilitator) type what the facilitator saw when the images are different None of the responses in Condition 1 Different corresponded to what the client saw (Jacobson et al., 1995, https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.50.9.750) M. Swisher 19 Problems with personal experiences (“testimonials”) B. Distorted by expectations and biases Keep track of all data in experimental and control groups i. Confirmation bias Look for evidence that confirms or goes with our own ideas Dismiss things that don’t fit Scientists also subject to confirmation bias; solution is to include all data e.g., Individual with anxiety assumes that the world is dangerous Selectively remembers instances when anxious thoughts were accurate Doesn’t remember instances when anxious thoughts were wrong M. Swisher 20  Confirmation bias example in anxiety disorders Selectively remembered Worried that boss will be Worried that car won’t be Worried that you’ll be late to dissatisfied with work; boss fixed in time; car an appointment; arrive late to is dissatisfied with work maintenance time extended a scheduled appointment 2021 2019 2023 2024 2022 2020 Worried that boss will be Worried that car won’t be Worried that you’ll be late dissatisfied with work; boss fixed in time; car to an appointment; arrive is satisfied with work maintenance completed on early to a scheduled time appointment Selectively forgotten M. Swisher 21 Question 3 Which statement is true about confirmation bias? 1. People learn information that fits and doesn’t fit with their view and only attend to info that fits 2. People learn only information that fits with their view 3. People learn only information that doesn’t fit with their view 4. None of these M. Swisher 22 Problems with personal experiences (“testimonials”) ii. Availability heuristic Something that is Particularly memorable or salient It skews our view of the way the world is (perception) e.g., Airline safety before versus after a crash iii. Placebo effects The tendency to report that you’re improving or that a treatment was effective because you expect that you will improve or that you expect it will be effective M. Swisher 23 Question 4 Clara expected that cupping therapy, which doesn’t work, would make her feel better. She reported improvement. What problem with personal experience is this? 1. Availability heuristic 2. Ziegarnik effect 3. Placebo effect 4. Confirmation bias M. Swisher 24 Availability heuristic example in anxiety disorders Salient event skews perception Worried that boss will be Worried that car won’t be Worried that you’ll be late to dissatisfied with work; boss fixed in time; car maintenance an appointment; arrive late to is satisfied with work completed on time a scheduled appointment April June Feb May March Jan Worried that car won’t be Worried that you’ll be late Worried that boss will be fixed in time; car to an appointment; arrive dissatisfied with work; boss maintenance completed on early to a scheduled is satisfied with work time appointment M. Swisher 25 Question 5 A new family moved to Phoenix because of the dry climate, but it rained during the first week that they were in Phoenix. They’re all now convinced that Phoenix is rainy. What is this problem with personal experience? 1. Placebo effects 2. Ziegarnik effect 3. Availability heuristic 4. Confirmation bias M. Swisher 26 Characteristics of pseudoscience 2. Shifts burden of proof when Claims are challenged Defense for why your data and approach are compelling Creationscientists (i.e., pseudoscience) challenge evolutionary biologists (i.e., established science) The burden of proof falls on the challengers, not on the established view e.g., Columbus had to show that the world is round rather than others having to show that the world was flat e.g., Claim: Essential oils (such as tea tree, peppermint, and lavender) can help to reduce cold symptoms Medical science: Aromatherapy does not help to reduce cold symptoms (American Lung Association, 2024, January 8 https://www.lung.org/blog/essential-oils-harmful-or-helpful and McGill, 2017, September 28 https://www.mcgill.ca/oss/article/health-and-nutrition-quackery/aromatherapy- fragrant-medicine-or-stinky-pseudoscience) Burden of proof is on medical researchers, not aromatherapy advocates when the reverse should be true M. Swisher 27 Characteristics of pseudoscience 3. If phenomenon currently unexplained, then they say the absence of evidence “supports my position” Argument by exclusion “You can’t prove it doesn’t!” Doesn’t mean position advocated was supported/right Could be yet another position e.g., Claim: People feel better after reiki sessions to align energies No other explanation for how energies are aligned Absence of alternative explanation taken as evidence for healing power of reiki M. Swisher 28 Question 6 Which characteristic of pseudoscience is involved here: Terry says that he’s right because no one can provide an alternative explanation for how magnet therapy helps people with chronic migraines? 1. Uses language of science and mimics procedure 2. Shifts burden of proof 3. Complains of shunning 4. Argument by exclusion M. Swisher 29 Characteristics of pseudoscience 4. Complains of shunning because the view is not in the mainstream Service claimed to produce Public available data Peer review shows their methods won’t work e.g., Juice cleanses to rid the body of toxins (i.e., detox) “Doctors won’t tell you about this Dicker/Cracked (2017, November 6) “Honest” juice cleanse ad will eat easy weight-loss solution” away at your hopes for a better you Your organs do this already https://www.huffpost.com/entry/honest-juice-cleanse-ad-will-eat-away- at-your-hopes-for-a-better-you_n_5a00a0cbe4b04cdbeb352f33 M. Swisher 30 Characteristics of pseudoscience 5. Misuses rules of evidence Relies on testimonials and anecdotes Not regarded as viable evidence in science Report success only Leaves out failures e.g., (real science method) Effects of ketamine tested on rats to determine which animals were less anxious (cf. Hironaka, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2902-3_6) vs. (pseudoscience method) Rationalize contradictory data or dismiss it Extra sensory perception (ESP) claims investigated many times When confronted with contrary data, it was alleged that skeptics made ESP “practitioners” unable to perform M. Swisher 31 Which of the following characteristics of pseudoscience is/are involved in how people represent facilitated communication? https://youtu.be/EDp5ZEpPHok (7:03) ABC Australia 1. Uses language of science and mimics the procedure (testimonials) 2. Shifts burden of proof when claims are challenged 3. If currently unexplained, “supports my position” (argument by exclusion) 4. Complains of shunning because the view is not in the mainstream 5. Misuses rules of evidence M. Swisher 32 Question 7 Which of the following is an example of misusing the rules of evidence for pseudoscience? 1. These 10 people who have used chromotherapy say that their cancer stopped spreading when they had regular doses of pure green energy 2. More people in a Chemotherapy group experienced remission than people in a No Chemotherapy group 3. When measuring tumor size before and after radiation, people’s tumors were smaller after radiation than before 4. The same number of people in a Juice Cleanse group and a No Cleanse group developed cancer M. Swisher 33 How to tell the difference between science and pseudoscience Myth: Vitamin C reduces the severity and duration of the common cold according to Nobel Laureate Linus Pauling in the 1970s Reality: Findings were cherry-picked; only 8% https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=1011828 effective M. Swisher 34 Direct comparison of science and pseudoscience Science Pseudoscience Uses precise language with clear definitions Uses science-sounding words that communicate misinformation Peer-reviewed and welcomes criticism Not peer-reviewed and hostile to criticism Uses consistent and valid logic Cherry-picks evidence, uses anecdotes (or testimonials or personal experience) as evidence and regularly fails to use valid logic (unsound premises -> unsound conclusions) Promotes critical thinking, intellectual Instills a cult-like mentality by using conspiracy theories, “us humility, open conversations, and is always versus them” thinking and claims to be the sole source of “true” willing to admit when wrong knowledge Follows the scientific method correctly Starts with the conclusion and works backward to confirm the hypothesis Changes as new credible evidence becomes Unchanging; no progress; conflicting evidence is minimized or available dismissed Claims are reserved and tentative Grandiose claims – extraordinary or exaggerated M. Swisher 35 Falsifiable – can be shown to be wrong Unfalsifiable – cannot be shown to be wrong 1