Collaborative Work Coursebook PDF

COLLABORATIVE WORK DLBCSCW01 COLLABORATIVE WORK MASTHEAD Publisher: IU Internationale Hochschule GmbH IU International University of Applied Sciences Juri-Gagarin-Ring 152 D-99084 Erfurt Mailing address: Albert-Proeller-Straße 15-19 D-86675 Buchdorf [email protected] www.iu.de DLBCSCW01 Version No.: 002-2024-0717 N. N. © 2023 IU Internationale Hochschule GmbH This course book is protected by copyright. All rights reserved. This course book may not be reproduced and/or electronically edited, duplicated, or dis- tributed in any kind of form without written permission by the IU Internationale Hoch- schule GmbH (hereinafter referred to as IU). The authors/publishers have identified the authors and sources of all graphics to the best of their abilities. However, if any erroneous information has been provided, please notify us accordingly. 2 PROF. DR. KARIN HALBRITTER Ms. Halbritter directs the master’s degree programs in coaching at IU International University of Applied Sciences. Her research focuses on person-centered consulting, coaching, and competency-based teaching and learning. Ms. Halbritter previously held various management positions including partner and key account manager, division manager, and managing director. She also worked for many years as a freelance trainer, consultant, and coach. She drew on this practical experience while furthering her studies in economics, social scien- ces, business education, and business psychology. For her dissertation on “Intelligent Corpo- rate Networking,” Ms. Halbritter designed a model for developing key skills needed to oper- ate successfully in an increasingly networked business world. 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS COLLABORATIVE WORK Module Director.................................................................. 3 Introduction Signposts Throughout the Course Book............................................. 8 Basic Reading.................................................................... 9 Further Reading................................................................. 10 Learning Objectives.............................................................. 12 Unit 1 Learning for a Networked World, in a Networked World 13 1.1 Requirements and Opportunities in the “VUCA” World........................... 15 1.2 Learning, Knowing, and Not-Knowing.......................................... 18 1.3 Collaborative Learning....................................................... 29 1.4 Monitoring Learning Behavior................................................. 31 Unit 2 Networking & Cooperation 35 2.1 Cooperation Partners........................................................ 36 2.2 Sustainable Relations: Digital Interaction and Trust Building..................... 41 2.3 Organizing Collaboration..................................................... 45 2.4 Social Learning.............................................................. 48 Unit 3 Performance in (Online) Teams 55 3.1 Goals, Roles, Organization, and Performance Measurement...................... 56 3.2 Team Building and Team Flow................................................ 62 3.3 Agile Project Management with Scrum......................................... 66 3.4 Other Agile Methods......................................................... 68 Unit 4 Communicating and Convincing 75 4.1 Communication as Social Interaction.......................................... 76 4.2 Language, Images, Metaphors, and Stories..................................... 80 4.3 Attitude: Open, Empathetic, and Appreciative Communication................... 85 4.4 Active Listening.............................................................. 87 4.5 Analyze Your Conversational and Argumentative Skills.......................... 91 4 Unit 5 Recognizing Conflict Potential — Managing Conflicts — Negotiating Effectively 97 5.1 Respecting Diversity and Seizing Opportunities................................. 98 5.2 Empathy................................................................... 101 5.3 Systemic Solution Process Work.............................................. 105 5.4 Constructive Negotiation.................................................... 107 Unit 6 Achieving Your Goals 113 6.1 Effective Goal Setting....................................................... 114 6.2 The Agile Use of Time....................................................... 118 6.3 (Self-)Coaching Methods.................................................... 123 6.4 Self-Management and Motivation Strategies................................... 125 Unit 7 Mobilizing Resources 129 7.1 Recognizing Resources...................................................... 130 7.2 Reflection and Innovation................................................... 134 7.3 Transfer Strength and Willpower............................................. 136 Backmatter List of References............................................................... 142 List of Tables and Figures........................................................ 150 5 INTRODUCTION WELCOME SIGNPOSTS THROUGHOUT THE COURSE BOOK This course book contains the core content for this course. Additional learning materials can be found on the learning platform, but this course book should form the basis for your learning. The content of this course book is divided into units, which are divided further into sec- tions. Each section contains only one new key concept to allow you to quickly and effi- ciently add new learning material to your existing knowledge. At the end of each section of the digital course book, you will find self-check questions. These questions are designed to help you check whether you have understood the con- cepts in each section. For all modules with a final exam, you must complete the knowledge tests on the learning platform. You will pass the knowledge test for each unit when you answer at least 80% of the questions correctly. When you have passed the knowledge tests for all the units, the course is considered fin- ished and you will be able to register for the final assessment. Please ensure that you com- plete the evaluation prior to registering for the assessment. Good luck! 8 BASIC READING Baber, A., Waymon, L., Alphonso, A., & Wylde, J. (2015). Strategic connections: The new face of networking in a collaborative world. New York, NY: AMACOM.http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat05114a&AN=ihb.47531&lang=d e&site=eds-live&scope=site Kaats, E., & Opheij, W. (2014). Creating conditions for promising collaboration: Alliances, networks, chains, strategic partnerships. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.http://search. ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=667181&lang =de&site=eds-live&scope=site Martin, S. J., Goldstein, N. J., & Cialdini, R. B. (2014). The small BIG: Small changes that spark BIG influence. London, England: Profile Books.http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.i ubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=1369221&lang=de&site=eds-live& scope=site Oettingen, G. (2014). Rethinking positive thinking: Inside the new science of motivation. New York, NY: Current. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=tr ue&db=nlebk&AN=1128376&lang=de&site=eds-live&scope=site Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 9 FURTHER READING UNIT 1 Horstmeyer, A. (2018). The power of curiosity in a VUCA world: Change your mindset to realize new opportunities and innovation. TD Magazine, 72(11), 78–79. http://search.e bscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsgbe&AN=edsgcl.56814 8067&lang=de&site=eds-live&scope=site Siemens, G., & Conole, G. (2011). Connectivism: Design and delivery of social networked learning. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 12(3), i–iv. ht tp://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edo&AN=598 32460&lang=de&site=eds-live&scope=site UNIT 2 Doubet, K. J. (2022). Reviving COLLABORATION in Classrooms: The pandemic has put a strain on group work. What can educators learn from the business world about effec- tive collaboration practices? Educational Leadership, 79(8), 24–30. http://search.ebsco host.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=asn&AN=156671915&lang=de &site=eds-live&scope=site Schreurs, B., Cornelissen, F., & De Laat, M. (2019). How Do Online Learning Networks Emerge? A Review Study of Self-Organizing Network Effects in the Field of Networked Learning. Education Sciences, 9(4), 289–316. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de: 8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ1238155&lang=de&site=eds-live&scope= site UNIT 3 Bloom-Feshbach, A., & Poyet, M. (2018). The rise of digital team building. People & Strat- egy, 41(2), 52–55.http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=tru e&db=bsu&AN=134251027&lang=de&site=eds-live&scope=site Spiegler, S. V., Heinecke, C., & Wagner, S. (2021). An empirical study on changing leader- ship in agile teams. Empirical Software Engineering: An International Journal, 26(3), 41– 76. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=edssjs &AN=edssjs.88C1CFF2&lang=de&site=eds-live&scope=site 10 UNIT 4 Goman, C. K. (2018). Reading body language at work: Five mistakes you don't want to make. Personal Excellence Essentials, 23(5), 11–12. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iu bh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bsu&AN=131478580&lang=de&site=eds-live&s cope=site Storr, W. (2020). The Science of Storytelling: Why Stories Make Us Human and How to Tell Them Better (pp. 108–110). New York, NY: Abrams Press. http://search.ebscohost.com. pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=cat05114a&AN=ihb.51520&lang=de&site =eds-live&scope=site UNIT 5 Livneh, Y. (2020). Overcoming the Loss Aversion Obstacle in Negotiation. Harvard Negotia- tion Law Review, 25(2), 187–212. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login. aspx?direct=true&db=edshol&AN=edshol.hein.journals.haneg25.10&lang=de&site=ed s-live&scope=site To, A. T., Tran, T. S., Nguyen, K. O., Hoang, V. T., & Thai, K. P. (2021). Applying Conflict Man- agement Styles to Resolve Task Conflict and Enhance Team Innovation. Emerging Sci- ence Journal, 5(5), 667–677. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx ?direct=true&db=edsdoj&AN=edsdoj.4172ef6834c941c0ac9d7250fe3e18d0&lang=de& site=eds-live&scope=site UNIT 6 Grigorescu, D. (2020). Curiosity, intrinsic motivation and the pleasure of knowledge. Jour- nal of Educational Sciences & Psychology, 10(1), 16–23. http://search.ebscohost.com.px z.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=asn&AN=144467793&lang=de&site=eds-liv e&scope=site Del Turco, L. (2022). Manifestation Magic (p. 92). Health, 36(1), 86–93, 2022. http://search.e bscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ccm&AN=153991886&lan g=de&site=eds-live&scope=site UNIT 7 Martínez-López, Z., Villar, E., Castro, M., & Tinajero, C. (2021). Self-regulation of academic emotions: recent research and prospective view. Anales de Psicología, 37(3), 529–540, 2021. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.aspx?direct=true&db=asn& AN=151943243&lang=de&site=eds-live&scope=site Scaltsas, T. (2016). A cognitive trick for solving problems creatively. Harvard Business Review Digital Articles, 5, 2–5. http://search.ebscohost.com.pxz.iubh.de:8080/login.asp x?direct=true&db=bsu&AN=118686126&site=eds-live&scope=site 11 LEARNING OBJECTIVES “If you want to go fast, go alone. If you want to go far, go together.” - African Proverb (origi- nated in Burkina Faso) Networking characterizes our world. Almost everything is interconnected and can usually only be understood, managed, and shaped “collaboratively”—i.e., together with others. The Collaborative Work course provides you with the basics to build and expand the nec- essary interdisciplinary competencies and to use opportunities for effective cooperation. You will learn the essential types and organizational possibilities of collaborative learning and working. You will also receive the basic knowledge and tools necessary for self- directed, flexible, and creative thinking; learning and acting; and for empathy and emo- tional intelligence. Throughout the course, there will be many opportunities to transfer and try out the new knowledge and capacities through daily tasks. You are invited on an adventure to test new models and methods, explore new ways of working with others, and learn about yourself along the way. 12 UNIT 1 LEARNING FOR A NETWORKED WORLD, IN A NETWORKED WORLD STUDY GOALS On completion of this unit, you will have learned … – the specific demands our networked world requires and the opportunities that arise from them. – how to handle information, knowledge, and lack of awareness in purposeful and pro- ductive ways. – how learning processes can be actively and constructively designed. – how to analyze and further develop your own learning behavior. 1. LEARNING FOR A NETWORKED WORLD, IN A NETWORKED WORLD Introduction Digitalization and networking are bringing together people from all over the world, mean- ing that many people's working and daily lives today are very different from just a few dec- ades ago. While new opportunities are continually emerging, these also bring about new challenges. The following figure shows a small selection of current topics and develop- ments. Figure 1: Challenges in a VUCA World Source: Created on behalf of IU (2020). This unit will introduce you to the essential requirements of this networked world, provide learning and action strategies to master these requirements, and offer suggestions for testing your own learning behavior. 14 1.1 Requirements and Opportunities in the “VUCA” World Due to current megatrends, our world often seems unpredictable, as if the brand new was emerging out of nowhere, bringing previously unimaginable possibilities but also unearth- ing unpredictable crises. The acronym “VUCA” encapsulates this world view in four words: volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity. This term comes from United States' military training and was used to describe the post- cold war scene (Lane & Maznevski, 2014, p. 12). But how does this play a role in society as a whole today? Let's take a closer look at the main factors and developments of VUCA's key terms, and the opportunities, risks, and requirements involved. Volatility Volatility refers to the strength, frequency, and speed of the forces of change as well as Volatility the nature and dynamics of resulting changes. It mainly revolves around technical innova- This term refers to incon- sistency or potential for tion and advances in globalization and networking. Through these advances, information change. can spread in a matter of seconds, triggering a mass response. As a result, not only is human behavior subject to considerable fluctuation but also entire economic, social, and political frameworks. Just think of hashtags, Instagram Stories, TikToks, and other internet portals for participation and interaction to share interests and voice opinions. They facili- tate the growth of mass phenomena or even set them in motion. The magnitude of mobi- lized people and groups can lead to new laws or political upheaval, such as the yellow vest movement in France. Another example is the global reach and effect of the “Fridays for Future” campaign, initiated in 2018 by then-15-year-old Greta Thunberg. The combined agency of blockchain, virtual reality, augmented reality, robotics, artificial intelligence, and other technologies will further strengthen the forces of change and accelerate their impact. Uncertainty Uncertainty—the generic term for risk, incertitude, and lack of knowledge—is not a new Risk phenomenon either. People have always had to cope with not knowing the future. They This term refers to the unknown outcome of an had to learn to assess and calculate risk by estimating probabilities. As the environment event. becomes more interconnected, however, the relationships between facts and events Incertitude become harder to grasp. Thus, it becomes increasingly difficult to identify relationships of It is not known whether an event will occur. cause and effect and to determine probabilities. Uncertainty intensifies: Opportunities or Lack of knowledge risks become unforeseeable, consequences are harder to assess, and it seems that unima- It is not known that an gined events and developments suddenly occur. event is even possible. 15 One example of the uncertainty borne from recent developments and their effect on our Amazonizing economy is“Amazonizing”.Amazon has, amongst other factors, challenged trade for year- This term was inspired by sas it manages, with great difficulty, to make offers equally as attractive to customers as the fundamental changes brought about by practi- the particular breadth and depth of product range, pricing, and service, that the high-per- ces developed and imple- formance internet provider makes possible. mented by the Amazon company that have influ- enced trade and econo- Complexity mies worldwide. Complex Many aspects of our world are complex. Diverse connections and interactions link a multi- Unpredictable, multilay- tude of living and inanimate elements. The interactions between them and the outcomes ered are unpredictable and often barely discernible. Complexity is the “reality of the living world” (Boulton et al., 2015, p. 28) and is as com- mon as uncertainty or volatility. Due to increased networking in economy and society, however, complexity now permeates most aspects of our social and technical world. This requires an approach that takes the particularities of complexity into account. Regarding fundamental awareness, every component (e.g., aspect, topic, phenomenon, event) must be considered independently as well as in relation to others. Ambiguity Ambiguity Diversity and complexity inevitably contain ambiguity. Contradictions frequently emerge Equivocation, opacity and simple solutions become impossible. There is no simple panacea; the search for Panacea appropriate solutions continues. Nevertheless, ambiguity also allows for different per- A single remedy that is supposed to cure all dis- spectives, different contexts, the investigation of meaningful changes, and the exploration eases. of new models and practices. Many methods of creativity utilize ambiguities to come up with new ideas and results. In summary, the VUCA world is volatile, uncertain, complex, and ambiguous. Boulton et al. (2015, p. 29) describe complexity as excellent fuel for innovation, evolution, transforma- tion, and learning. This definition also applies to changeability, uncertainty, and ambigu- ity. Individuals aiming to manage these emerging demands and make use of the resulting opportunities should learn to deal with and develop appropriate ways of thinking and (re)acting. Adequate Action in the VUCA World A starting point for appropriate action in the VUCA world is the realization that actions occur under certain circumstances. Even if the world as a whole is perceived as VUCA, there are still differences in action depending on the situation. Situations vary in requirements, developments, and appropriate implementation. Ralph Stacey developed the Stacey Matrix to determine the relative complexity within a project which can be transferred to our present time (Project Management Institute, 2021). 16 Figure 2: Complexity-Specific Decision-Making and Action with the Stacey Matrix Source: Sauter et al., 2018, p. 8. Obvious situations In the simplest case, everything is obvious, known, and clear. We know we have packed a box correctly when the items are within the weight limit and not damaged after transpor- tation. Following the instructions during assembling furniture is another example. In obvi- ous situations, rules and procedural descriptions support efficient progress. Even if you Efficient could complete a task differently, it is usually more efficient to follow instructions. The This term refers to the optimum balance task is to identify the appropriate procedure or rule, apply it, respond accordingly, and between input and out- ideally, improve it continually with best practice. put. Best practice Describes the comparison Complicated situations with those who achieve best performance and is In complicated situations, we are faced with a variety of combinations and possibilities for established through eval- uation criteria action. At the same time, consequences and cause-and-effect relationships are to be expected. The required technologies, methods, and procedures are generally easy to describe, making it easy to plan in detail. Imagine you're driving a car. You know where you're headed. Your speed, the route, and the details of how you operate the steering, throttle, and brake will depend on how the journey proceeds. 17 In these situations, it makes sense to carry out variance analyses continuously, and to alter the procedure in the event of deviations. Again, we strive for efficiency and the appli- cation of best practice. Complex situations If there is ambiguity and uncertainty, variance test control is no longer useful. By limiting ourselves to one goal over a long-term period and assessing its advancement only through achievements, we risk missing new and significant developments. Instead, we should Reflection apply regular reflection and monitoring activities. These activities review the interim This is the practice of results, overarching goals, and framework conditions; incorporate new information; and comparative and probing thinking, reflecting, and adapt goals and future procedures. The applied methods must sufficiently account for reasoning. complexity. Agile methods from IT development, such as design thinking, lean startup, or the sprint in the Scrum framework of agile project management, are particularly suitable here. Chaotic situations When objectives or tasks and, thus, consequences and procedures are uncertain, a methodical approach is no longer appropriate. The most important task now is to mini- mize risks and cautiously approach a fitting solution. It is important to consider that every step can lead to a completely new starting point. In these situations, it is best to proceed according to the principle of “trial and error”: take action, observe what happens, fail, and try again. The insight gleaned from this approach reduces ambiguity and uncertainty, and the chaotic situation becomes a complex situation to which appropriate methods can be applied. When dealing with today's challenges and opportunities, it is, above all, a matter of flexi- bility. This is the central lesson to be learned in the VUCA world: It is important to perceive the respective situation or task with an open mind, to identify the type (simple, compli- cated, complex, or chaotic), and choose the appropriate course of action. Stay alert to changes that affect clarity and predictability. Ultimately, the future develops out of a “dance between patterns and events” (Boulton et al., 2015, p. 29). 1.2 Learning, Knowing, and Not-Knowing Learning has been described in many different ways. Psychologists largely agree that it is a process by which your behaviour is (more or less) permanently altered through experi- ence (Anderson, 2000). How we learn - and how we learn best - is a topic of much debate, but some strategies have proven particularly helpful. Actively engaging with new informa- tion makes it much more likely to stick (Dehaene, 2020, chapter 8), and recognizing some- thing as meaningful can increase motivation, making learning particularly easy. Learning changes your way of thinking, feeling, and acting, expanding your abilities to respond to life's challenges. At the beginning of a study course, successful learning is therefore espe- cially worth investigating. 18 You already know that learning is also an interplay of information and action. We invite you to combine the following information with active participation. First, pause for a moment. Think about where you stand on this topic and why you are interested in it. TRANSFER Gather your reflections, and take a few notes on these questions: What do you know about how learning and memory work? What else would you like to know? Data, Information, and Knowledge Let's start with the possible learning targets: data, information, and knowledge. Figure 3: Data, Information, and Knowledge Source: Zeuch, 2007, p. 16. Data is what observation instruments perceive, such as the shapes shown in the previ- ous figure. The quality of the data depends on what is perceptible (here: the figure) and on the observation instrument (here: your eyes). Information is formed when data is given meaning. This meaning is deduced directly from either the data or the context, or where the relevance filter (e.g., the brain) places Relevance filter it. Meaning depends on the content that the data receives through the criteria of the The relevance filter deter- mines whether data is respective relevance filter. For example, you recognize an eye and ear from the black meaningful and will lines in the background of the previous image. become information. 19 Knowledge is created by linking information to what already exists, i.e., with currently stored information, expectations, or attitudes. When seeing the eye and the ear, you might first think of sensory organs in general, and then the sense of touch might cross your mind. The concept of knowledge used here is broad. It refers to all possible mem- ory content, e.g., factual knowledge, abilities, and motor skills. Learning and Memory Learning and memory are two sides of the same coin. Learning refers to the acquisition of information or skills; memory refers to the cognitive process that allows for the storing of what you have learned, so that it can be retrieved when needed (APA, 2022). Learning Learning links new information to information that is already stored in the learner's brain. The process by which This linking, the incorporation of new information into existing memory structures, can new, relatively stable neu- ral networks are formed. only be activated by the learner. Thus, individual learning is always self-guided; it is utterly different from information processing by modern computers. While the hard disk is ideally empty in order to record as much as possible, the human brain works the opposite way. Where nothing exists, nothing is retained because nothing can be attached or integrated with what we already know. Moreover, the brain does not have the same limitations as a hard disk; our memory storage is never “full”. This means that an empty brain cannot learn anything, whereas a “full” brain can learn all the more, since the information neces- sary for the associations or “connection points” is available. Although we can experience moments of exhaustion, the individual brain never “fills up”. Memory is organized associatively, that means content is always stored and retrieved in a networked manner. The fact that just a few bars of a song can recall the memory of a meeting at which that song was played exemplifies this characteristic. Suddenly every- thing is present again: the people, the activity, the smells, and the sounds. To better understand what matters when it comes to learning, we take a brief look at how memory works, drawing on the work of Richard Gross (2012). Memory can be divided into short-term and long-term memory. Initially, new information enters the short-term mem- Short-term memory ory. It stays there for several seconds or a few minutes, like a phone number that you This type can store any- remember long enough to write down. If the information receives closer attention, it may where between two and nine information units or enter the long-term memory(Gross, 2012). “chunks” for a limited time. Long-term memory Theoretically, this type can store unlimited infor- mation units for an unlim- ited amount of time. 20 Figure 4: Short- and Long-Term Memory Source: Markowitsch, 2013, fig. 3. Long-term memory has diverse contents. Psychologists and brain researchers differenti- ate between two different types of memory: declarative and procedural memory. Declarative or explicit memory contains everything that can be consciously reflected Declarative memory on and explained, such as facts and episodic knowledge (Gross, 2012, p. 266). Information that can be expressed or explained Procedural or implicit memory is content that is difficult or impossible to express using language (“knowing because it is hard to consciously recollect, like emotional experiences, motor skills such that”). as cycling or skiing, or routine activities or habits (Gross, 2012, p. 266). Procedural memory This content is difficult or impossible to articulate A closer look at the processes summarized under “learning and memory” shows how (“knowing how”). learning should be organized in order for memory to function well. Figure 5: Memory Content Creation and Retrieval Source: Brand & Markowitsch, 2009, p. 72. 21 Storage (linking) Working memory Working memory helps to transfer information from short- to long-term memory. This is Information is trans- a special form of short-term memory (Markowitsch, 2013). Here, information can be kept formed for storage and linked to what already active and transformed in such a way that it is easier to remember and connect to already exists. stored information. “Chunking” is a way of expanding the limited capacity of short-term memory (Gross, 2010, p.256; Miller, 1956). Converting the sequence of numbers “2, 9, 1, 0, 1, 9, 8, 9” into the date “29 October 1989” reduces the amount of information bits to store from 8 (the individual digits) to just 3 (day, month, and year), making it much easier to process. If this were, for instance, the birthday of a dear friend, the emotional connection would further facilitate the storing of this information in the longer term. There are many strategies to facilitate storage and retrieval. For example, it is helpful to sort and structure new information. This leads to deeper processing. The following illus- tration gives an example: Individual words are easier to remember and retrieve if they are remembered not in isolation, but arranged into categories (like animals, beverages, fruit). If these words are to be recalled, the category serves as retrieval instructions: It is easier to find the words you are looking for thinking of the categories they fall under. A similar learning strategy is, for example, memorizing technical terms or names not individually, but associating them with detailed stories. Many other memorizing techniques help in a similar way with storing or the subsequent consolidation. 22 Figure 6: Categories as Storage and Retrieval Aids Source: Brand & Markowitsch, 2009, p. 74. It is always the case that the more active the engagement with something new, the better it is captured in the brain. As Hebb’s theory famously posits: cells that fire together wire together (Hebb, 1949). In other words, if nerve cells are active at the same time, they also connect with each other. With increased frequency comes increased stability in the con- nection. In the event, everything perceptible in the situation—whether that is an external sensory stimulus (such as music or smells) or an internal sensation (such as [dis]pleasure of learning or anxiety about an exam)—may be learned or remembered (Sahoo et al., 2019, pp. 175–176). How well the learning process works depends on emotions and motivation. Not only is helpful if you are personally interested in what there is to learn and you consider the learning material meaningful; emotions have also been linked to how we process, store and retrieve information (Kim & Pekrun, 2014). 23 attitude. An enthusiastic mood and a moderate level of energy is conducive to learning, i.e., not too relaxed but not too tense. environment. The ability to divide your attention and do several things at the same time is called “multitasking”. When two activities, requiring equal cognitive attention, are performed at the same time, the focus jumps quickly from one activity to the other. This takes a lot of energy, whether you notice it or not. Studies have shown that actions such as frequently checking your e-mail or social media feeds is a great disadvantage to learning new information. Especially students underestimate the impact of social media multitasking. They don’t realize that switching between social media and learn- ing is sub-optimal for both activities and leads to faster exhaustion (Branstetter, 2016, p. 89). positive interdependence. The relationship and interaction with fellow learners can fos- ter a positive mood and strengthen your interest in the learning material. Moreover, learning outcomes can be enhaced if you feel that you and your fellow learners' efforts are mutually beneficial (Johnson & Johnson, 2002). We will return to the topic of collab- oration. Consolidation (reinforcement) and storage In the next stage, connections between the new and existing memory content are stabi- lized. This may occur through individual exercises, repetition, or meetings with others where the content is explained and discussed. This consolidation enables long-term stor- age because only consolidated information is stored in the long-term memory. Retrieval Stored content can be retrieved in different ways (Gross, 2010, pp. 261f.). 1. Recall without external retrieval notes: This is the most difficult form of memory. Each of us have likely experienced failing to recall a certain word, technical term, or name because we could not find the “channel” that leads there. 2. Retrieval with cue stimuli prompted externally or internally: Owing to the networked organization of the brain, it is helpful to think of other terms or situations associated with the item in question. These can be categories, mnemonics, or other memory aids, such as keywords, stories, or key stimuli that were associated with the new con- tent when it was saved. 3. Recognition: Content is remembered by being recognized, as is the case with multi- ple-choice tasks, for example, when the correct answer is recognized among others. Re-encoding Each retrieved memory content has to be re-stored, i.e., re-encoded. This further consoli- dates the storage of the retrieved content. This process explains the positive effect of rep- etition in learning. 24 If the same connection is used frequently, it is automatically activated. Such instances Automatic activation occur, for example, when people often respond to a word with the same association (e.g., Habitual behavior is involuntarily triggered by bread, butter) or act out of habit in certain situations where they don’t have to consciously key stimuli. recall anything (e.g., brushing one's teeth in the morning, greeting others, or selecting seats in rooms). However, there is always the risk of (imperceptible or unintentional) distortion while mak- ing new memories. For example, eye witnesses are likely to misremember an event if pre- sented with false or misleading information about the event just after it happened (Loftus, Miller, & Burns, 1978). It is, therefore, important to immediately repeat the correct infor- mation if an error has occured, in order to prevent the wrong information from being encoded. The more you engage with the new content when you are gathering, consolidat- ing, and storing it, and take care to ensure that it is well integrated, the higher the proba- bility you will remember it when you need it, i.e., restore the connection, and correctly consolidate what you have learned. Learning, Knowing and Not-Knowing The recognition that learning always links the new with the existing makes two things clear in particular: Learning is a self-stabilizing and reinforcing process. The more you know about some- thing, the easier it is to learn more about it. Learning depends on how the new data is saved and retrieved. If something newly learned does not lead to the intended result when applied, it is likely that connections were made with false or insufficient previous knowledge. The average person knows very little about many of the topics and phenomena that play a role in their everyday life. As long as the available knowledge is sufficient, this does not pose a problem. For example, how much does the average internet user know about com- puter science? Not much. And yet, they can use the internet to check the news, watch a movie, or order their groceries without difficulty: the knowledge available to them is enough for this purpose. In a VUCA world, we often have to act without having a complete overview and under- standing of the circumstances and relationships between things. In many cases, a full overview is not even achievable. It is therefore useful to be able to act even when you are not fully informed. However, if your existing knowledge and skills are not suited to a new task, then this can become problematic. In this case it could happen that the new learning material is linked, without you being aware of it, to unsuitable previous knowledge and therefore does not lead to the desired learning success. Successful learning and action require competent handling of pre-existing knowledge and the lack of it equally. Therefore, it is worth considering the different types of unknowns and the dangers these involve. A recommended response may be derived from this aware- ness. 25 Known Unknowns, Unknown Unknowns, and Unknown Knowns Known unknowns Known unknowns refer to the recognition that we know nothing or too little about some- The known lack of thing: be it a fact, object, process, or context. This form of not knowing is unproblematic knowledge is referred to as known unkowns. because there is a starting point, i.e., you can consciously establish connections to the things you already know, and are aware of the gaps in your knowledge that have yet to be filled (Matheson, 2014, p. 12). How do you address the known unknown? Learn! Take a close look at what you need to learn: What is your goal? What are the main topics or sub- topics? From which trusted sources can you get the necessary information? Who has a similar need for learning and can perhaps learn with you? Who can provide support? How do you plan the learning process? To avoid making the wrong connections, always ask yourself what you already know and to what extent this previous knowledge corresponds to your intention. When the extent to which we know or do not know something is undefined, this is referred unknown unknowns to as unknown unknowns (Matheson, 2014, p. 12). For example, before the dangers of The unknown lack of radioactivity were discovered, nobody even considered them: Marie Curie kept some knowledge is referrd to as unknown unknowns. radium salt on her bedside table: it shone in the dark (Marie and Pierre Curie and the dis- covery of polonium and radium, 1996). There was a lot to learn about radioactivity, but even Marie Curie herself did not know the extent of what she did not yet know. How do you address the unknown lack of knowledge? Stay curious. Remain open to the fact that what appears to be known can also be unknown. unknown known Knowledge that a person possesses subconsciously is the unknown known. There is gen- Unknown knowledge is erally no danger in this. However, you might lack the confidence to do something that you implicit knowledge stored in non-declarative mem- can do, resulting in a missed opportunity. How do you address this? Self-confidence! ory, or experiential When faced with challenges, always look for similar situations that you previously mas- knowledge. tered: How did you approach the task? What did you do and how? What helped you back then: what ability, person, etc.? Errors are the mistaken belief of knowing or being able to do something. There are two fundamental dangers here: Errors occur as an inexpedient standard of judgment and ensure that one does not ade- quately deal with the knowledge that could resolve the fallacies. New information is “adapted” in such a way that it is compatible with existing errors and connects to them. As a result, no new knowledge is created; instead, errors are rein- forced or elaborated. This can happen when something is misunderstood and not immediately corrected. How do you address this? Always keep a critical and open mind! If new information that comes from trustworthy sources contradicts your knowledge, experience, and ideas, resist immediately dismissing it. Approach it with curiosity and then take a critical stance. Consciously generated lack of knowledge or knowledge that is not allowed to exist is called “taboo”. This lack of knowledge can be helpful as it reduces the complexity of situa- tions or tasks, but it also withholds the dangers of an objectionable reduction of complex- ity. Moreover, it can hinder the search for solutions. 26 How do you address this? Ask courageously and take a look from the outside! A good indi- cation of possible taboos is the feeling that you simply cannot get any further than a cer- tain point or a certain situation, and feel you are caught in an endless loop. Then it is worth taking a moment to think about what is preventing you from moving forward. One often encounters unspoken basic assumptions here, which are always assumed to be “fixed” in everyday life, be it in one's own actions or in dealing with others. It is helpful to question these basic assumptions, preferably among people who have nothing to do with the situation. This external perspective is often enlightening. Above all, learning, which is not merely the accumulation of information and factual knowledge but also the development of useful and beneficial skills in our VUCA world, requires an active engagement with the learning content. Furthermore, it is necessary to foster a healthy degree of skepticism about your knowledge and identify your lack of knowledge. In this context, ways of thinking and acting that lead to reflective practice (Lang, 2019) can help to further develop your knowledge and skills and continually renew them. Optimize Learning At the end of this learning cycle, it is now up to you to secure what you have learned by transferring the essentials into your world. It is best to keep a learning journal to gather your essential interests, questions, and insights; document and reflect on your learning progress (Rowntree, 1993, p. 113). This intensive interaction with the learning material seems to require much more effort at first, but in the end you stand to gain at least three rewards: 1. You learn more intensively and thoroughly because you reflect on the learning mate- rial and build new connections (Park, 2003). 2. You increase your academic performance and the probability that you will success- fully remember details, even after the end of the course (McCrindle & Chistensen, 1995).. 3. You have a “reference book” which you can come back to over the following terms, as well as after your studies. 27 Figure 7: Learning Journal Source: Krengel, 2012, p. 60. A learning journal can come in various forms: (a) you can use a notebook or writing pad (b) create a document in a conventional word processing software on your computer like Microsoft Word or (c) use an app,e.g., OneNote, or Evernote. Apps have the advantage that all your notes are in one place and easily sorted and always accessable; writing on paper increases brain activity and can help you remember the things you write down even better (Umejima et al., 2021).Choose what suits you best. Start now. It is best to take the opportunity to record the following transfer exercises at the beginning of the learning diary. This is the best way for you to maintain this effective, self- determined learning until the end of your studies. You will immediately embed a crucial recipe for success: Any beneficial action can be repeated continuously, becoming a habit, and eventually an automatic routine and a part of your personality. TRANSFER Self-Coaching Questions Question your own ideas. How does the content of the section fit in with what you already knew? What is similar? What is different? Reflect on knowledge and lack of knowledge: What about your behavior has been favorable up to now? What has not been? From the course, what can you apply to your future behavior? Think in writing, it's more precise than thinking alone. 28 1.3 Collaborative Learning TRANSFER Before you continue with the lesson, prime yourself. Review the content and main topics. What do you already know about this topic? What would you like to learn or bet- ter understand? Learning involves forming neural networks. In an increasingly digitalized world, many of the cognitive tasks previously reserved for humans have been assumed by computers, from commercial and legal file processing to medical diagnostics. Big data technologies Big data combined with artificial intelligence allow us to make unprecedented predictions. It is Mass data is linked and analyzed for a wide vari- becoming increasingly important for us to develop the ability to act based on information ety of (forecasting) pur- that lies outside our personal knowledge, i.e., to act competently without having explicitly poses. studied the topic beforehand. Artificial intelligence (AI) This technology uses The 4C model by Sauter et al. (2018, p. 243) describes a framework for collaborative learn- algorithms to automate ing that fits the requirements of our VUCA world. It is characterized as human learning and deci- sion making. collective. Learning is about using ideas, experience, and knowledge from all relevant sources to achieve high productivity and innovation. Quality assurance, for example, takes place within the framework of collaborative cooperation by colleagues in the form of a peer review or via internet users’ responses to a publication. collaborative. Through cooperation amongst learners and between learners and teach- ers, new knowledge is created. Social learning exists on learning from and with others. The roles of students and teachers and their relationships with each other are funda- mentally changing. They are becoming co-creators working in partnerships. continuous. We learn every day in a continuous cycle of development and communica- tion. Learning no longer takes place sporadically in institutionalized settings such as seminars or at schools but wherever necessary. Siemens (2006) predicted that “the model of ‘go to a course’ is being replaced with learning and knowledge at the point of need” (p. 27). This applies throughout our life. connected. Learning takes place independently of a location or a terminal, i.e., exactly where it is necessary. According to the 4C model, basic digital skills are indispensable for learning. Table 1: Basic Digital Skills Digital Literacy the mastery of basic digital skills, e.g., careful handling of digital personal data, common software knowledge, AI interaction Digital Interaction the use of appropriate tone and candor in online forums 29 Collaboration the effective and efficient use of digital tools regardless of physical proximity and across different disciplines and cultures in order to achieve better results as a team than as an individual Agile Work the iterative work of a team responsible for an end product (“Rapid Proto- typing”) that adds value for the customer Digital Learning the deepening of knowledge on selected topics from a variety of digital resources Digital Ethics the critical questioning of digital information and the effects of one's own digital actions to make corresponding ethical decisions Source: Kirchherr et al., 2018, p. 6. Siemens (2006) points out that such integrated, collaborative learning necessitates the recognition that we only have partial knowledge, and requires an attitude accepting of ambiguity and uncertainty: “Certainty is for a season, not a lifetime” (p. 28). At the same time, it is important to recognize the risks associated with such shared learn- ing and knowledge. Everyone can become a producer of knowledge, publishing their thoughts and findings on the internet or contributing to learning communities, without vetting the information in editorial offices or academic institutions. When the institutions that oversee the quality of knowledge lose authority and importance, the collective learn- ers must assume this function. For everyone participating in this world, one skill becomes crucial: media literacy. What does this mean for you? You have to be able to judge the trustworthiness and relia- bility of your knowledge sources, be in a position to assess the validity of cited evidence, and reveal inaccuracies in reports, videos, and images so as not to believe untrustworthy sources. To this end, there are assistance services such as the “Hoaxmap” initiative, which provides information on rumors targeted against foreigners; the “Mimikama” association for clarifying internet abuse, or the “EU vs. Disinfo” platform, which aims to uncover tar- geted disinformation through government-related Russian media. Nevertheless, it is nec- essary to train one's ability to judge and to develop the ability to recognize connections and patterns. This also includes a critical assessment of the seriousness of such auxiliary services. The less the individual can access verified evaluation criteria, the more important the reflective and critical exchange with others. Chang (2019, pp. 100–106) emphasizes the benefits of reflection in the group. Other people have a different view of things and ask different questions. Dialogue, discussion, and reflection with others make it possible to illuminate one's own knowledge and learning behavior from different perspectives and different points of view, thereby refining, correcting, developing, and expanding it. Every- one involved benefits. Chang describes the usefulness of common reflection as follows: By examining existing knowledge, learning processes and aspects of lessons learned inadequately or incorrectly, these simultaneously improve. Reflection helps to establish a personal frame of reference to the information and to sit- uate it in the learner's sphere of life and experience. 30 By reflecting with others, we establish comparative frames of reference; learners also recognize their connectivity and build relationships with one another. 1.4 Monitoring Learning Behavior Learning can be made particularly effective by focusing on the following elements: Focus: Identify what is important to you and which topics you want to learn about. Hav- ing a clear goal in mind can help you stay motivated throughout your learning journey (Pintrich 2003, p. 675f.) Learning unit overview: Create a rough overview over the learning material at the beginning of a learning period. This way you can achieve two things: 1. In the sense of priming (Kahneman, 2011, pp. 52–58), you are prepared for what is Priming to come, and create the best possible conditions for wide recall capacity. This is the associative pre-activation of knowl- 2. Having a structured overview of the learning content functions as a “storage aid” edge with a cue. that can be used as a prompt when recalled. Personal structure: Create a system for learning. Summarize the content for yourself in keywords and create visual summaries (e.g., mind maps). You achieve the greatest learning success when you use different forms of structuring with the material (Rosciano, 2015). Previous knowledge and associations: It is important that you are aware of what you already know about the topic and what associations you link with it. For example, ask yourself: What do I know about it? What thoughts or ideas occur to me when I think of this topic? How far does it fit with my new knowledge? What are the differences and contradictions? Eventful confrontation: If detailed information is paired with information from the learning situation, this can also be retrieved more easily by remembering the concrete learning situation. It is therefore helpful if you create positive experiences while learn- ing, for instance, through group work, learning aids, or mnemonics. The use of different media can also enhance storage and retrieval. You could search for additional images or reports online or browse videos on the subject (e.g., on YouTube, Instagram, or in the video library of a media corporation). Always maintain a critical stance on these sour- ces. It is important to note that the notion around the importance of finding out one's preferred sensory channel and learning according to type (auditory, visual, kinesthetic) has long been outdated. Although personal preferences exist, activating as many sen- sory levels as possible is most effective. Personal frame of reference: Recognize relevance in everyday life: Content that is sub- jectively meaningful is processed more deeply than content that does not hold any per- sonal point of reference. Ask yourself: how far does the subject affect me personally (e.g., work, hobbies)? Positive emotions: Learning can be associated with unpleasant feelings, most likely due to the uncomfortable process of change. Hence, it is important at the organiza- tional stage to ensure you feel well and at ease while you are learning (Goleman, 2013, pp. 170–175). Positive emotions can have a beneficial effect on learning (Pekrun et al., 2002; Isen, 1999): 1. Affective content is more easily stored and remembered. 31 2. Affective aspects of the situation of learning serve as retrieval hints. 3. The release of positive emotions during learning activates the brain’s reward sys- tem. This makes learning more enjoyable and easier to continue. Research on study- Intrinsically motivated ing indicates that if you are intrinsically motivated to learn you can achieve your The activity is carried out learning outcomes more easily because you are enjoying the process. Extrinsically- for its own sake. The con- sequences are unimpor- motivated learners, i.e., those for whom learning is a required duty or a means to tant for motivation. an end, find it more difficult to benefit from learning success (Pekrun et al., 2002). Extrinsically motivated The activity is carried out because of its consequen- Reflection ces. Reflection forms the basis for autonomy and self-determined action in our networked world. Reflection enables you to question the actions, values, and assumptions you hold, and, above all, to check your learning success. In the process, what has been learned is further reinforced and deepened. Through reflection you can take stock of the learning process as a whole, as well as its application, and assess its value.“Reflective practice” should be scheduled at different levels and follow different objectives. Inspired by Bateson as well as Agyris and Schön's work on organizational learning, we can distinguish between single-, double- and triple-loop learning, as illustrated in the follow- ing(Tosey et al., 2011; Agyris ,1999). Figure 8: Learning Process Types and Purposes Source: Hummelbrunner & Reynolds, 2013, p. 2. Single-loop learning (learning to adapt) optimizes the execution procedure. The key question when reflecting through single-loop learning is: “Are we doing things right?” 32 In your own learning process, ask yourself, for example, whether your engagement is “brain-friendly”. Is the learning space conducive to learning, e.g., is the environment favorable to learning, are you able to interact with the information? When you are in a positive learning environment, your interests are stimulated, and it is possible to estab- lish meaningful links with your previous knowledge, such that the new material can be recalled. Double-loop learning (learning to change) improves the selection of plans and proc- esses, e.g., by questioning the underlying objectives and assumptions, getting to the crux of whether it makes sense at all or is even necessary to carry out the project. The key question is “Are we doing the right things?” In your own learning processes, ask yourself to what extent the material you are engag- ing with is important for what you ultimately want to achieve. What do you want to ach- ieve, and what do you need to do so? What are your selection criteria for the subject matter and the learning activities? For example, if you are preparing for an exam, it makes sense to look through the exam requirements, solve past exam questions, and gather further information on the possi- ble exam content. Consider what is relevant in terms of content and which activities are most suited to acquiring the knowledge and skills. In contrast, if you have to write a seminar paper, it does not make sense to learn the contents of the script by heart. Triple-loop learning (learning to learn) examines your own thinking and learning strat- egies, including the associated assessment and evaluation criteria as well as the respec- tive limits. The key question here is “How do we know what's right?” At this stage, you step up a gear intellectually and ideally in your exchanges with others too, questioning the basics of your decisions regarding learning content and activities. Consciously search for a possible lack of knowledge: misconceptions, incongruous assumptions, and other limits to your perception and capacity to learn. The following questions can help: Where do I find the approaches, theories, and mod- els? How can I assess their suitability? To what extent do I consider VUCA characteris- tics? What is the underlying worldview? Is it more mechanical, with a trivial sense of cause-and-effect? Or is it more systematic, with a more discerning view that considers phenomena as a part of complex systems? Which worldview is appropriate for the task? Which is practical for the current goal? Which other approaches, schools of thought, or disciplines exist that represent other worldviews and theories? The particular challenge at this level of reflection is to go beyond one's own thinking. This is difficult to achieve on your own. It is especially useful at this level to draw inspi- ration from others: books, digital and analogue media, or through exchange by collabo- rative learning and working in the digital or analogue world. Supplementary thinking and creativity exercises can also be very rewarding here. TRANSFER Review the thoughts and expectations you wrote down at the beginning of this unit. What has been achieved? What remains to be done? How are you going to deal with unresolved issues? What have you learned from this unit and the learning test? 33 Think in writing. Thoughts alone are too vague. Start: From now on I will start to... Stop: From now on I will stop... Go: I will continue to... SUMMARY Our networked world is characterized by volatility, uncertainty, complex- ity, and ambiguity. Dealing with the opportunities and risks requires thinking and acting appropriately to respective situations. Management of complex situations is particularly challenging, since proven rational methods are not appropriate here. While learning, new knowledge is linked to existing knowledge. It is nec- essary in this process to activate the relevant structures in the brain. With increasingly intensive engagement, new knowledge is better inte- grated into the brain, and the more successfully it can be retrieved. Helpful here are deliberately-created reference cues (memory aids) and an open-minded and (self-)critical approach to what is unknown—above all in the form of misconceptions and taboos. According to the 4C model, contemporary learning is collective, collabo- rative, continuous, and connected. This also requires basic digital capa- bilities. Brain-friendly learning is made possible by focusing on the essentials of the learning objectives, the overview, one's own structure, and a lively discussion that takes previous knowledge and personal interest into account and ensures positive emotions. Information connected with emotions allows for it to be remembered better. The basis for successful learning is reflection on the approach (“doing things right”), the selec- tion criteria (“doing the right things”), and the thinking and learning strategies, as well as on assessment criteria (“how do we know what is right?”). 34 UNIT 2 NETWORKING & COOPERATION STUDY GOALS On completion of this unit, you will have learned … – how to find and attract suitable cooperation partners. – how to set up sustainable relationships through digital and analogue channels and build the basis of trust required for these. – how cooperation can be organized locally and online and what media may be useful for this purpose. – how to plan your learning processes in agile, collaborative, and mobile ways. 2. NETWORKING & COOPERATION Introduction How often are you in contact with other people? When do you use online social networks and media? When do you opt for analogue alternatives? New contacts are often made through existing ones. When you cannot meet you goals through your own network, you should consider ways of expanding it. Moreover, coopera- tion on common tasks usually requires an intensive and more structured, methodical exchange than what is typical of social networks. This lesson shows you how to build your network and cooperative links in line with your goals and motivations and how to use them for your upcoming learning tasks. The notes on application and transfer exercises will help you with the implementation. TRANSFER PREPARATION Before continuing, prime yourself. Review the content and main topics. What do I already know about this topic? What would I like to learn or better understand? 2.1 Cooperation Partners Cooperation means working together. When two or more people pursue a common goal and work together to solve a task or overcome or problem, this is referred to as collabora- Collaboration tion. Networks are an excellent place to find suitable cooperation and collaboration part- A cooperation in which ners (Lu, 2015, p. 95; Halbritter, 2012, pp. 124–125). the participants work together to solve a task. The Three-Level Model The three-level model in the figure below illustrates the relationships we will explore: 36 Figure 9: Network, Cooperation, and Collaboration Source: Created on behalf of IU (2020), based on Halbritter, 2012, p. 125. Network level Networks are characterized by openness and a high degree of fluctuation, resulting in Network partial observability. Their characteristic feature is “potential opportunity”, i.e., the gener- This is a personal web of formalized social relation- ally always available and utilizable possibility to address other network participants and ships. to access their expertise and resources (new information, contacts, etc.). In this regard, networks are vital sources of opportunities. Weak relationships and casual contacts are often the most valuable: the more intensive the relationship, the more likely it is that two people already share their knowledge, worldview, and acquaintances. Logically, it follows that they might not be able to communicate new information, points of view, insights or contacts, as Granovetter elaborated in his “The Strength of Weak Ties”(Granovetter, 1973). To illustrate:Jia, Ada, and Ben share a hobby: They love strategy games. They met while competing online a few years ago. Each of them is in contact with many people through different channels in different networks, e.g., Discord, WhatsApp, Snapchat, and Insta- gram. Basis for cooperation Contacts formed through previous common assignments are also beneficial. This work may have led to similar or identical fields of interest, coordination processes and approaches, and familiarity with the same programs or tools. These commonalities pave the way for mutually-beneficial collaboration. In this set-up, it is usually quite easy for groups or teams to come together, both online and in person (e.g., in regional meetings), to work together over a longer period of time and carry out joint projects. Joint projects Project can be based on a division of labor (cooperative) or a joint approach marked by positive A project is a goal-ori- ented and structured plan interdependence (collaborative). with fixed start and end dates. Jia, Ada, and Ben were surprised to see each other in an IU study group this year. The Positive interde- pendence three of them enrolled in different study programs, but they face similar struggles, such as At the core of collabora- organizing work and study. They agreed to form a study group this semester. tion lies positive interde- pendence, which means 37 that the work mutually Projects benefits all involved par- ties, and one is not able to succeed without the Effective cooperation occurs when projects are organized and initiated in a tailored proc- other(s) (Johnson & John- ess. son, 2002). Jia, Ada, and Ben a hold an initial brainstorming session. Together, they agree to finish the course within two months. They also agree on key dates for their collaboration, which MS Teams they document on MS Teams. This is a digital applica- tion for virtual teamwork that allows for chatting, The following figure illustrates the path from the network level to the level of collabora- storage, and conferences. tion. This is an overview of each required level. Figure 10: Targeted Development of the Fundamentals of Collaboration Source: Halbritter, 2012, p. 150. The advantage of this progressive approach is that it lowers access thresholds, compared to an unmediated, direct way. Follow the steps below for a successful search. Strategic Approach To successfully cooperate with others, the following resources should be in place: Interest in other people: A genuine interest in others and an enjoyment in making and maintaining contacts is the foundation of this approach. To this end, Baber et al. (2015, pp. 10–25) provide many helpful tips from dealing with shyness effectively to strength- ening self-esteem. They rightly emphasize that networking and cooperation means both “talking and taking” as well as “teaching and giving.” Seek to be as helpful to oth- ers as you wish them to be toward you. Meaning and purpose: For motivation and purpose to thrive, you need a clear idea of what you want to achieve through networking and cooperation, as well as what you are prepared to give. Be clear with yourself about why you are seeking to work with others. Define the kinds of network and cooperation you wish to have: are you looking for gen- eral or specific information? Do you need to expand your existing network? Do you need to collaborate with others to achieve your goals? What benefits do you seek? What can you offer? With increased clarity comes an increased opportunity for success. The more 38 you align your networking and collaboration activities with your motives, goals, and other plans and activities, the more effective they will become, and the less time, energy, and expenses you spend. It is best to write down your main goals and create a list of topics and tasks of interest to you. Based on these, develop your network and cooperation strategy. Network Levels 1. Establish personal contacts. A good starting point is your existing contacts and networks. What are your current net- works? Which blogs and forums do you visit regularly? What are the topics? Which of your goals and interests do they represent? Now compare the results with your goals: How well do your networks align with your aims and subjects? Do you already know like-minded people? Which topics would you like to learn more about, if only you had the right contacts? Who is missing in your network? Do you have any specific people in mind? Think of people you know who might be acquainted with these missing links and could introduce you. Additionally, consider the benefits for your current and new contact(s). Table 2: Network Activities Checklist Theme/Goal Network/Organization Network Activity Network Advantages Promoting environ- Greenpeace Member Support of my interest, mental protection information Study success IU Group Business Edu- Member Student contact, coop- cation eration opportunities Professional devel- German Society for Psy- Junior member First-hand expertise, opment chology professional contacts Handball (hobby) SV Grundhausen, Hand- Leader/Trainer Youth Athletic pursuits, group leadership experi- ball Section Group instruction practice ence Source: Created on behalf of IU (2020), based on Baber et al., 2015, p. 51. This analysis might show you what is missing and keeping you from accomplishing your goals. Which networks would be more suitable? Which blogs could provide you with fur- ther information? Do you use internet search engines to look for existing contacts, organi- zations, or networks known to you? Which networks, institutions, associations, or societ- ies could be helpful for your subjects and goals? How can you access these? Again, what could you contribute to support these networks? If an appropriate network for your subject is missing, it might be useful for you to set it up yourself. A possible way to do this is by creating a group on a social network (e.g., Face- book, Xing) or by starting a blog. 39 2. Establish visibility. Bloggers attract attention by creating content on interesting topics that benefit other peo- ple, e.g., by providing valuable information. Even within current networks, it can be possi- ble to signal to others that you are a noteworthy contact. Be active. This is possible in ana- log as well as online networks: participate in discussions, share your knowledge, and be generous with helpful tips and links. Baber et al. (2015) offer useful advice on how to culti- vate an interesting and valuable impression for others. With care, you can create and design the space for successful relationships. 3. Create access. Getting in touch with someone on an online social network or through an introduction at a meeting is important. However, the possibility of collaboration only arises through hav- ing a meaningful interaction. Ultimately, the potential contact must decide to grant you access, perhaps because they recognize that the exchange with you is advantageous for them, too. How do you achieve this without becoming a self-marketing expert? Show interest in people, their preferences, and their goals. When meeting a new person, you might try noting down their professional and private backgrounds, hobbies, and interests, in addition to their contact information. Reflect on the person's interests and how they might benefit from working with you. Do you have interesting information, or do you have interesting tasks and questions for your contact? Ideally, you share the same interest. It is a good idea to enrich those, e.g., with new information, an entertaining but brief story, or a useful tip. Once you have formulated this, do not hesitate to get in touch. Use common sense when looking for a favorable opportunity. Moreover, be confident. You have already established the connection, and you have something to offer. Remember these sayings: Practice makes perfect, and if you don't dare, you can’t win. 4. Maintain contacts. Take time to nurture your contacts. Begin by gathering information about your contacts that you can build on. Something as simple as periodic contact to see how they are doing can have a big impact. Send birthday or anniversary wishes, or forward a new tip. Ideas and opportunities for important collaborations are likely to develop from this. Bases for Cooperation With the network contacts you have, you can start planning and preparing for possible closer collaboration. Common motivation and interests bond you together, creating a good basis on which to work together. This also establishes trust. Trust increases with shared experience. Through this interaction, you learn more about what others do, what skills they have, and how each of you complement and advance one another's goals. 40 2.2 Sustainable Relations: Digital Interaction and Trust Building How can relationships at the network or cooperation level develop sustainably? Particu- larly when interactions are primarily online, it can be difficult to build up the necessary trust. The information obtained through a direct encounter, e.g., body language or facial expression, is not available. As in analog life, it is important to behave appropriately towards others, even if you are only in contact through online channels. The widespread existence of cyberbullying Cyberbullying makes it clear that two aspects of the internet reinforce each other and lead to unfavora- This is the insult, threat, and harassment of people ble conditions when building relationships over the internet. First, the inhibition threshold on the internet or via e- is lower due to the anonymity. Second, statements that might only have had a local effect mail. in analog life risk reaching a broader audience and having a greater impact. “Netiquette” or “digital etiquette”, (e.g., Furgang, 2017) is threfore a valuable component Netiquette of “digital literacy”. The following table summarizes some of the key pieces of advice. This term refers to polite- ness rules on the internet. Digital literacy Table 3: Netiquette and Digital Etiquette This is the competent handling of online media. Chatting on private messages and public forums Demonstrate your competence, but don't brag. Using your clear name, especially in professional networks, automatically makes a more polite and pro- fessional impression, and facilitates mutual access. Be cautious with personal information, and do not reveal too much detail. Distinguish between close friends, acquaintances, casual contacts, and strangers. Before you write, share, or like, think carefully. Be open with other users, answer questions politely. As in real life, honor your appointments and prom- ises. Stay relaxed and patient when communicating over the internet. Communicate in considerate, non- impulsive ways. Resist the urge to vent pent-up anger with a nasty comment. Do not post disparaging, maliciously polemic, or discriminating, racist, or sexist comments. Avoid react- ing to such comments; ignoring them deprives trolls of additional fuel. Troll This internet user writes exclusively for emo- tional provocation. Photos Only use photos for which you have image rights. Don't circulate photos of others without their permis- sion. Avoid embarrassing photos and pictures without captions. Always keep in mind that what is shared over the internet can ultimately reach everyone, including your current or future superiors. Smartphones and other mobile devices 41 Do not use a smartphone or mobile device while eating. In group settings, be present, and keep your smartphone or mobile device use to a minimum. Turn the sound off when you are at work or not at home. On public transport, make calls quietly. Only use your telephone in public areas in emergency cases. Source: Prof. Dr. Karin Halbritter, 2020. The Golden Rule on the internet applies equally in everyday life: Treat others as you would like to be treated. Growing casual contacts into sustainable relationships requires trust, which is the belief that another does not wish to cause you insult or injury. Without trust, relationships cannot develop. Trust grows through contact with others. According to Baber et al. (2015, pp. 83–87), it takes about six to eight meetings (ideally in person, but also possibly online) before trust is established in a relationship. You learn something new about the character and competence of the other with every meeting. You can observe their particular talents and skills, get an idea of their convictions, and assess how comfort- able you feel with each other. Trust building can be helped along by showing the other person your own character and competence. In other words, do not only talk about yourself, but show who you are through action. Show character (Baber et al., 2015, pp. 83–104): Keep your word. Keep your appointments. Be reliable. Treat everyone fairly. Speak well of others, even if they are not present. Be generous in spirit—avoid bitterness. Push for win-win solutions. Avoid competitiveness. Work towards collaboration. If something goes wrong, correct it and make up for your mistakes liberally. Go the extra mile. Respect others’ time and belongings. Say “Thank you!” Show competence: Be happy to discuss your methods, processes, and ideas with others. Share your knowledge with others and expand it. Teach or support other people. Be active in trade media, blogs, etc., and ensure that you are perceived as an expert. Publish on the internet, in scholarly journals, etc. Give lectures, for example, as webinars on the internet, as videos on YouTube, or at live events. Make sure you have the right certificates for your goals. Work toward prizes and awards in your professional circles. Ensure that your work meets or exceeds expectations. 42 Stay up-to-date in your profession and your areas of interest. Pursue lifelong learning. Theoretically, it is possible to gain access to everyone through networks and be connected as “contacts” or even “friends”. However, these categories do not provide a true assess- ment of the relationship. For Baber et al. (2015, pp. 88–92), there are six levels of trust, distinguishing the depth and viability of relationships: Figure 11: The Six Levels of Trust Source: Baber et al., 2015, p. 89. 1. Accidents. You meet people in public places, either on the train or in an online forum. You may leave it at that, or you may keep in touch. 2. Acquaintances. Although you don't see each other regularly, you are in an analog or online network. You may have met them through another contact directly. Acquain- tances can be bridges to new circles and networks. The extent to which this results in a deeper, more trusting relationship also depends on your common interests. The immensely large number of potential acquaintances alone makes selection and limi- tation necessary. You cannot maintain personal relationships with everyone. This also limits the capacity to develop personal trust. It is possible that the person who has introduced you would have placed their trust in you, but you still have to demonstrate your trustworthiness to the other person. 3. Associates. These are people in your groups or organizations. The sense of belonging here is the most unifying and bonding factor. At this level, projects can lay a founda- tion for future cooperation. 43 4. Actives. These are people with whom you spend your time, from sharing information to having lively discussions. The relationship has evolved past the initial levels, and you are now testing each other. Whether or not this testing is deliberate, you are look- ing to assess the strength of the current relationship and its potential. A positive result allows the relationship to develop further. 5. Advocates. People who are convinced of each other's character and competence, and have thus developed a high degree of trust, enjoy supporting each other. You go to the stake for somebody to remain loyal. This idiom says it all: The greater the mutual trust, the riskier things become, and the higher the risk you would take for each other. 6. Allies. This is a small group of people who know you best, from your chosen speciali- zation to your habits and dreams. They know where you come from and where you're headed. Relations are closest and most sustainable at this level. The path from contact to collaboration is through conversation (Baber et al., 2015, p. X). Strengthen your conversational skills by practicing the following: 1. Get talking. Engage in dialogue and build sustainable relationships by showing respect and appreciation for others, telling entertaining and humorous stories, and offering interesting information to your conversation partners. 2. Get curious. Ask questions with great interest that make people stop and think. Ques- tions that show genuine interest in others go beyond the usual “small talk”. These questions invite the other person to say what they have to say. You can prepare your- self well for this by formulating your own favorite questions. The items below can pro- vide some inspiration: a) “Tell me what you're dealing with these days.” b) “What have you been working on lately?” c) “What are you looking forward to doing? What fascinates you at the moment?” d) “Tell me your story.” 3. Listen carefully. Pay attention to these three important aspects: a) evidence of your interlocutor's character and competence, b) information about their talents and qualifications, and c) how you could support them. 4. Be generous. Offer resources and ideas that signal that you want to work together. 5. Keep in touch. This begins with a good initial conversation and continues with follow- up meetings, online or face-to-face. Stay in touch in a way that builds trust. Trust is the basis for sustainable relationships. Building this takes time, and it is a recipro- cal rather than one-sided process. While you can build trust by creating beneficial, enjoya-

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