Farook Training College Innovative Academia (FTCIA) Online Collaborative Learning Project (OCLP) PDF

Farook Training College Innovative Academia (FTCIA) Online Collaborative Learning Project (OCLP) Pre-Edited Version of Study Materials. (Chance for minor errors) Farook Training College Innovative Academia (FTCIA) Online Collaborative Learning Project (OCLP) Project Team: Project Head: Dr. T. Mohamed Saleem. Principal Project Director: Dr. K. Vijayakumari. Associate Professor Associate Directors: 1. Dr. G. Manoj Praveen. Associate Professor. 2. Dr. Niranjana. KP. Assistant Professor Student Directors: 1. Sayooja. B.Ed Physical Science 2. Vibin. B.Ed Social Science 3. Basith. B.Ed SocialScience. 4. Mohammed Sadique. B.Ed Social Science. 5. Sreehari. B.Ed Malayalam 6. Rohit. B.Ed Natural Science. 7. Sreelakhsmi. B.Ed Malayalam 8. Athira. B Ed. English. The entire materials are prepared by the B.Ed students(2019-21) of Farook Training College, Calicut, Kerala. It is expected that this will be a support for those who need simplified, concise but comprehensive study materials for their examination preparation. It is a smart footstep to self learning and peer learning. A note of appreciation to all student teachers who are the workforce behind this great endeavor. B Ed. II. Sem. EDU 07 FACILITATING LEARNING Unit 1 Learning-a conceptual framework Group Members Thaskina Thasneem.k Sreelakshmi T Fasila farsana v Varsha M chandran Reshma K R Adila saleem.k Mahin Dileep EARNING oncepts of learning Learning is the process by which an individual acquires knowledge, attitudes, and skills that are necessary to meet demands of life. The change in behaviour brought about by experiences is commonly known as learning. Eg: A child touches a burning candle many times. radually he learns to avoid all burning things. Definitions of learning Learning is a process of progressive behaviour adaptation- Skinner Learning is the modification of behavior through experiences- Gates Learning refer to more or less permanent change in behavior which occurs as a result of practice- Kimble Characteristics of learning 1. Learning as adjustment: Learning is a progressive adjustment to ever changing environment and conditions in life. 2. Learning as improvement: Normally learning is aimed to bring about desirable changes that lead to improvement. 3. Learning as development: According to woodworth “ All activity can be called learning so far it develops the individual”. 4. Learning and behavioral changes: The behavioral changes brought by learning is enduring and stable. 5. Learning and performance: Learning produces changes in the efficiency of performance. 6. Learning is purposeful: It is the purpose that determines what one has to attend in the learning situation. 7. Learning and Education: Education is the process of learning that takes place in the classroom under the supervision of the teacher. 8. Learning takes place through experience: Learning is the change in behavior through experiences provided by situations and activities. 9. Learning has a wide scope: Learning’s scope includes formation of habits,interests,beliefs,values and ideals etc. 10. Learning as a social orientation: An individual learns many behavioral patterns,knowledge,lifestyle etc. from the society. 11. Learning is continuous: Learning starts from womb and ends in tomb. Learning and maturation The development of the child in terms of his ability in goal setting, necessary physical and mental maturity previously learned skills etc.constitutes his learning readiness. The factors that detrimentally affect the learning readiness are defects in development, illness, physical handicaps, lack of motivation social maladjustment etc. Testing the previous knowledge and other attainments is one of the various means of ascertaining readiness. Readiness is determined by introducing a simple dose of task anticipated and checking the rate of learning during the early practice session. slow rate of gain indicates lack of readiness or excessive difficulty of learning material. Accelerated rate of gain indicates that the material is suitable to the learning capacity of the pupil. Readiness is essentially an educational concept associated with the maturation of the child Factors Affecting Learning The factors which influence the process of learning can be classified in to three. 1.LEARNER VARIABLES. Those which are related with the learner 2.METHOD VARIABLES. Those which are related with the method. 3.TASK VARIABLES. Those which are related with the material. Learner variables 1. Maturation 2. Age 3. sex 4. previous experience 5 capacity 6. physical handicaps Maturation The learning which an individual is capable of taking up is dependent on the level of his maturation. Maturation is a natural developmental process by which development takes place in the individual. Maturation and learning are closely related to each other. Maturation which depends upon hereditary endowment provides the raw material for learning. Without practice, development willnot take place through maturation alone Age The ability to.learn new material increases untill about 20 years of age. It remains constant till 30 and declines rapidly after 50. The older children learn more efficiently than younger ones, because the possess advanced maturational level, sharper intelligence and broader experience. SEX There is no significant difference in learning, between sexes. It is generally observed that boys are superior in motor activities and girls excel in skills requiring delicate co-ordination of smaller muscles. In regard to verbal learning, girls are found superior in word fluency reasoning and rote memory and boys in spatial and verbal meanings. Boys obtain superior scores in mechanical aptitude and in science and mathematics. Whereas girls obtain higher scores in clerical.aptitude and language skills. Previous experience Previous experience helps learning. If there is previous experience we can build up behavioural changes based on those that already taken place Capacity By capacity we means the person's potential for learning. Capacity of the individual necessarily controls his performance. Physical handicaps Physical defects tend to retard progress in learning. Defective vision, hearing and speech are some of the handicaps that adversely affect learning progress. Motivation It is an important factor. It energizes the organism. It gives direction to action by projecting valuable goals. Without motivation no.learning is possible. Motivation is the heart of the learning process Task variables The nature of the learning in different forms such as its length,meaningfulness,difficulty level and organisation constitute the task variables. Different types of task variables are, 1. Length of material ----- If the length of the learning task exceeds the memory span of the learner,the time taken to learn will be more. 2. Meaningfulness material ----- There is greater ease and facility for memorisig meaningful materials as compared to meaningless material. 3. Difficulty level of material ----- If the material is difficult the rate of learning is slowed down and forgetting will be more and fast. 4. Organisation of materials ----- The learning material should be arranged in the order of increasing difficulty as in programmed learning and modular instruction. Method variables The amount and distribution of practice, the extent of learning the practice of recitation during, immediate knowledge of results, the use of the whole and part method, the sensory modality adopted are some of the features which come under method variables. 1. Distribution of practice It is usually said that practice the extent of learning the practice need not produce improvement. With practice there must be some kind of check or appraisal of achievement so that improvement could be ensured. Practice on any task can be done in two ways. If one has to memorize a poem he may do it in one sitting and go on reading unit it is committed to memory or he may spread the practice over a few days. The former is known as massed practice and the latter is Distributed practice. 2.Extent of learning If we want to ensure better retention and recall, practice must be continued beyond the point of the first errorless reproduction and recall are ensured by over learning. 3. Practice of Recitation during Learning Recitation is a presentation made by a student to demonstrate knowledge of a subject or to provide instruction to others. First the learners may read the material a number of times. Then he must try to recite the material from his memory. If he fails at a particular point he may refer to the material and learn that part again. 4.whole and part method It's a learning techniques. The learner repeats the material as a whole every time or only a part of it. If the unit for study is meaningful and compact the whole method is better. In cases where the material is rather long and parts themselves are more closely integrated than the whole, the part method may work well. 5.sensory modality Human beings are considered to have five main senses.sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. We learn things using our senses. One may receive impressions better through the eyes and other may do so through the ears. Hence a multiple approach should be adopted. T.v attracts people better than radio since at the same time it appeals to two senses. Eyes and ears. The use of audio-visual aids in the classroom is justified and recommended on the basis of the proven efficiency of the multi sensory approach. Cognitive factor Cognitive aspects of learning refer to thinking processes and mental procedures involved in the learning process. Cognitive factors that influence learning range from basic learning process, such as memorizing facts or information, to higher-level process. Such understanding, application,analysis and evaluation. An important cognitive aspect. Of learning, that can hinder or facilitate learning, is prior knowledge and prior learning experience of students. Definition of cognitive factor Cognitive factors refers to characteristics of the person that affect performance and learning. These factors serve to modulate performance such that is may improve or decline. These factors Involve cognitive functions like attention, memory, and reasoning (Danili& Reid 2006) Cognitive skills Sustained attention Response inhibition Speed of information processing Cognitive flexibility and control Multiple stimulations attention Category formation Pattern recognition Cognitive skills in a child Cognitive skills development in children in involves the progressive building of learning skills , such as attention , memory and thinking. These crucial skills enable children to process sensory information and eventually learn to evaluate, analyze, remember make comparisons and understand cause and effect Affective factors Affective factor include inhibition, attitudes, levels of anxiety ,and self esteem. Affective factors in learning Affective factors are emotional factors which influence learning. They can have a negative positive. Negative affective factors are called affective fillers and are an important idea in theories about second language acquisition. Acquisition language factors are: Motivation, attitudes, age, intelligence ,aptitude, cognitive style, and personality are considered as factors that greatly influence someone in the process of his or her second language acquisition. Socio-cultural factors Socio- cultural context refers to the idea that language, rather than existing in isolation, is closely linked to the culture and society in which it is used learners are looking at the language of advertisements. In order to do this effectively, they need to understand the culture I which the adverts function. Examples of socio- cultural factors : * customs, lifestyle and values that characterize a society. More specifically cultural aspects include aesthetics, education, language,law,and politics, religion, social organizations, technology and material culture, values and attitudes. Socio- cultural dimensions of learning; - Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations and communications with others - Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to collaborate with others on instructional tasks. Importance of socio- cultural factors; Socio- cultural values are the beliefs, values traditions and habits that influence our everyday behavior. These values influence the decision we make and actions we take. Because of this socio- cultural values can have an important impact on economic development. Types of learning Leaning is the acquisition of knowledge or skills through study, experience or being taught. It is classify into various groups and thus divide human learning into the following types. 1.Conditioning 2.Verbal learning 3.Motor learning 4.Discrimination learning 5.Concept learning 6.Principle learning 7.Problem learning 8.Attitude learning 1. Conditioning……. *Fundamental form of learning *It involves the substitution of one stimulus for another and the forcing of connection of both 2.Motor learning…….. **Motor learning is the understanding of acquisition or modification of movement. *As applied to patients, motor learning involves the reacquisition of previously learned movement skills that are lost due to pathology or sensory motor or cognitive impairments, this process is often referred to as recovery function. 3.Verbal learning……. *It is the process of actively memorising new materials using mental pictures, associations and other activities. *It is different from conditioning *It is limited to human beings. **Human beings acquires features largely in terms of words and then words come to be associated with one another. 4.Discrimination learning * Occurs when an organism learn to respond to one stimulus but not the stimulus that one are similar *For example we salivate when we hear ice cream truck bell.However we salivate at the door bell ringing. 5.Concept learning *Learning from example *General to specific ordering over hypothesis **Picking new examples *The need for inductively bias 6.Principle learning…… *Common relationships are noted and generalized in principle learning 7.Problem learning *A problem is any situation in which the organism, can discover some sort of manipulation. *Then by verbal reasoning a solution can be attempted. *Attitude learning *Based on attitude *Much of our learning involves changes in attitudes. *Its because of formation of attitudes show favorable and unfavorable responses to various objects, persons, situations or to ideas. 2 Mark Questions & Answer key words 1. Define learning? 2. Mention any four characteristic of learning? 3. which are the factors affecting learning? 4. write any 5 learner variables? 5. write any four socio- cultural factors that affects learning? 6. Mention the cognitive factors affecting learning 4 Mark Short Essays & Value Points 1. Briefly explain the concept of learning.? 2. Explain any four characteristics of learning. 3. Briefly explain any 4 characteristics of learning variables? 4. Explain the relationship between learning and maturation? 5. What are the socio- cultural factors affecting learning 10 Mark Essays & Value Points 1. Define learning and explain the concept and characteristics of learning. B Ed. II. Sem. EDU 07 FACILITATING LEARNING Unit 2 Motivation NIMISHA MUHAMMED SADIQUE JAMSHEERA PRAJILA NISHITHA HAFSATH MEANING AND DEFINITION, HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE MEANING OF MOTIVATION ❖ Motivation is a transitive form of the noun, “MOTIVE”. Motive is derived from the Latin word “MOVERE” which meaning “TO MOVE”. ❖ Motivation is what moves people to do the things they do. ❖ It is the act or process by which the needs and desires of a person move him towards some action. ❖ It is defined as a driving force that initiates and directs behaviour. ❖ It is the heart of the learning process. DEFINITION OF MOTIVATION ❖ Motivation is defined as the “processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of efforts towards attaining a goal”. -Stephen P. Robbins ❖ Motivation as an internal process that activate, guide and maintain behaviour. -Baron HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES OF MOTIVATION ❖ The concept of motivation can be traced from ancient Greeks, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle ages. ❖ Plato (427 B.C – 347 B.C), the desire for truth (curiosity) is one of the greatest motivation in life, and wisdom is one of the greatest intrinsic joys. ❖ Sigmund Freud (1856- 1939), put forth a very different view of human motivation. he said that, from cradle to tomb, what people want is sex, sex, and more sex. Later he modified his ideas to say that both sex and aggression drive our behaviour. ❖ Many psychologist who were contemporaries of Freud, or who came after him, embraced much of what Freud said but differed with him on the importance of sexual motivation. For example. ❖ Alfred Adler (1870- 1937) wrote about desire for superiority and power. ❖ Carl Jung (1875- 1961) thought that the will to live, a general life force, is the greatest human motivator. ❖ Clark Hull (1884- 1952) and Kenneth Spence (1907- 1967) develop an influential model of behaviour and discussed human motives in terms of a series of learned and unlearned drives. Such as the drive to eat when hungry or the drive to escape from anxiety. ❖ Erik Erikson (1902- 1994) developed a theory of Ego development or what might be loosely called a desire for human growth. ❖ Various schools of behaviourism have expressed different views on the on the question of what motivates people. ❖ Carl Rogers (1902- 1987) said that people are driven more or less by two desires, the desire to grow, called SELF-ACTUALIZATION, and the desire for SELF ACCEPTANCE. ❖ B.F.Skinner (1904-1990), another leading behaviourist, urged psychologists to pay little attention to finding the basic motives that guide our lives. He believed that all motives, thoughts, and feelings (including pleasure and pain) are private. ❖ The great American psychologist and philosopher William James said, “the deepest principle in human nature is the craving to be appreciated. ❖ William James (1842- 1910), philosopher, and educator, and William McDougall (1871- 1938), the brilliant Harvard social psychologist, believed that behaviour is guided by instinctual desires. ❖ The following list of basic instinctual desires are; 1. saving – the desire to hoard and collect 2. construction – the desire to build and achieve 3. curiosity – the desire to explore and learn 4. exhibition – the desire for attention 5. family – the desire to raise our children 6. hunting – the desire to find food 7. order – the desire for cleanliness and organization 8. play – the desire for fun 9. sex – the desire to reproduce 10. shame – the desire to avoid being singled out 11. pain – the desire to avoid aversive sensation 12. herd – the desire for social contact 13. vengeance- the desire for aggression ❖ McDougall expanded and improved on this list. Together, James and McDougall realised that human desire is multifaceted. ❖ James and McDougall were the 1st influential psychologists to develop a comprehensive theory of basic human desires. ❖ Henry A Murray (1893- 1988) restated McDougall’s list of instincts as a list of psychological needs. Murray’s work was influential, partially because he developed a popular technique for assessing a person’s motives. ❖ Abraham Maslow (1908- 1970) he was one of the few psychologists who looked at human nature primarily from a motivational perspective. ❖ He made the important point that we are creatures of desire who always want something. ❖ Motivation as a state of the organism which involve the existence of a need that moves the organism and directs its activities to a goal that can bring about the satisfaction of the need. ❖ Therefore it constitutes a cycle. MOTIVATION CYCLE Needs generate Motive Satisfaction creates Actions Tensions Result in Leads to Types of motivation KINDS OF MOTIVATION The motivation can be broadly classified into two kinds : 1. Natural Motivation or Intrinsic Motivation 2 Unnatural Motivation or Extrinsic Motivation Natural Motivation or Intrinsic Motivation This type of the motivation is directly linked with the natural instincts, urges and impulses of the organism. The individual, who is intrinsically or naturally motivated, performs an act because he finds interest within the activity. He is engaged in learning something because he derives pleasure in learning that thing. The activity carries its own reward and the individual takes genuine interest in performing the activity not due to some outside motives and goals. When a student tries to solve a mathematical problem and derives pleasure in the task of solving it or tries to read poetry and the reading itself gives him pleasure, we can say that he is intrinsically motivated. In these cases the source of pleasure lies within the activities. He solves the problems or reads the poetry for its own sake. Such type of motivation has real values in the learning task as it creates spontaneous attention and interest and sustains it throughout. Unnatural or Extrinsic Motivation ln such motivation, the source of pleasure does not lie within the task. Such kind of motivation has no functional relationships to the task. The individual does or learns something not for its own sake, but as a means of obtaining desired goals or getting some external reward. Working for a better grade or honour, learning a skill to earn the livelihood, receiving praise and blame, rewards and punishment etc. all belong to this category. In comparison to Extrinsic motivation, Intrinsic motivation, as a source of spontaneous inspiration and stimulation, brings better results in the teaching- leaming process. Therefore. It is always better to make use of intrinsic motivation, whenever possible.But in case it is not appropriate to make use of intrinsic motivation, the use of extrinsic motivation should not be suspended. Depending upon the learning situation and nature of the task, the choice for providing appropriate motivation should be made by the teacher so that the learner may be profound interest in the learning activity. Achievement motivation Achievement motivation or the need for achievement is the psychological drive to exel, a social form of motivation to perform at a high level of competence. The term “Need for achievement ”was first introduced by Henry Murray in his book “Explorations of personality ” where he used it in the sense of overcoming obstacles or being regularly willing to take on difficult tasks. The term achievement motivation has been the preferred term more recently. The theory of achievement motivation was developed by David McClelland in 1951 at the university of Havard. According to McClelland , the achievement motivation is a constant drive to improve one’s level of perfomance, to accomplish success in contention Achievement motivation - Meaning Achievement motivation which can be defined as an individual’s need to meet realistic goals, receive feedback and experience a sense of accomplishment. It may be defined as the energization and direction of competence - relevant behaviour or why and how people strive toward competence (success) and away from incompetence (failure). Characteristics of achievement motivation 1. Undertaking innovative and engaging tasks. 2. Need for precise goal setting. 3. They tend to be more future oriented. 4. Appreciate accomplishment rather than rewards (tangible or intangible). 5. Prefers working alone to group works. 6. Demands regular feedback from the superiors 7. Calculate risk of the task beforehand. 8. Have strong mind setting to accomplish the given task. 9. Believe in excellence 10. High performers IMPORTANCE OF ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION It will help to moderate risk propensity. It undertaking innovative and engaging tasks. It enhance internal locus of control and responsibility for own decision and behaviour. It need for precise goal setting of students It help to predict student’s future success or failure. Through the prediction of failure ,teacher can give special training programmes for achievement. HOW TO DEVELOP A.M ? The home,school,society play an important rolein the development of A.M. Early training at home,parental expectation, guidence received,etc Social philosophy of society(every society follow certain rules and regulations). Stories of great men and their acheivements. Proper environment in the classroom. Teacher attitude towards students. Opportunity to take an independent responsibility Commitment and social climate. Focus on playing games regarding real life situations.Through this child’s behaviour is scoring on several criteria and they recieved individual feedback. Through developing a personal plan of change.Child should think about everyday change and manage possibile difficulties. Child should be understand or realise their own charactristics and goals. Role of motivation in learning Motivation occupies a central position in the teaching learning process. The fundamental aim of motivation is to stimulate and to facilitate learning activity. Motivation is the heart of learning Motivating the students is essential to make classroom instruction effective Learning becomes effective and pleasant only when children are motivated. Motivation encourage the participation of the learner. Motivation of learning activities helps the pupil to concentrate on what he is doing, and thereby to gain satisfaction. Continuous motivation is needed to help learners concentrate on the lessons to be learned. In the absence of motivation there will be either no learning or very little learning. Sufficient motivation will be release energy for the continuation of the process of learning. Motivation leads to increased effort and energy. Motivation increases the initiation and persistence of activities. A good teacher tries to arouse motivation in the students before he begins the lesson. It arouses, sustains, directs and determines the intensity of learning. classroom motivation techniques Motivation occupies a central place in learning. All teachers are faced with the problem of arousing motivation. Several steps are there to arousing motivation in class room situation. ➔ Child centered approach: It is child who has to learn. The teacher only helps him to learn. The learning meterials or experiences should always be assigned according to the needs, interest and abilities of the child. 1. Linking the new learning with past: 2. What has been learned or experienced in the past proves a good base for the present learning. 3. The assigned task seems to be interesting, easy and within the capacity of the child if it is properly related with past experiences. 4. Use of effective methods, aids and devices in teaching: 5. Use of audio-visual aids and service rendered by musuem,places of visit etc…. 6. Definiteness of the purpose and goal: 7. Child must be told the purpose of acquiring a new skill or ExPeriences so that a clear perception of the goal may motivate them and bring required results. ➔ Providing immediate feed back and achievements: Immediate knowledge of the result of an activity gives incentive for taking further steps. Therefore, the teacher should make provision for acquainting the students well with their progress. Hand books, graghs, charts, and progress card should be maintained properly. ➔ Praise and reproof: Both praise and reproofs are potent incentives. They can be safely used for the achievement of the desired motivation in classroom situations. The teacher must recognise the nature of students and consequently make use of praise and reproof in motivating them. ➔ Ego involvement:. Ego - attitudes rising to the self. Teachers, generally are in the habit of rediculing the students. it is not the proper way of motivation. Teacher should ty to engage them in activities which can appeal his self respect and raise status among his peers. ➔ Development of proper attitude: Attitude is defined as the one’s set to react in a particular situation. It is closely related to attention and interest. The childs have positive as well as negative attitudes. Teacher should try to develop proper attitudes towards the desired act or learning. ➔ Competition and cooperation: Competition indicates the desire to excel others Competition may take one of the two forms; ★ Competition against one person: it may develop undesirable habits. ★ Competition against one’s own record: stimulate the learner to compete with his own past record Group competition may lead to bitter criticism, improper rivalry, enimity etc…. To remove these bad effects the remeady is often suggested in the form of cooperation. Cooperation and friendly competition develop team spirit, community feeling, and other socially desirable habits. ➔ Rewards and punishment: Rewards and punishments are powerful incincincentives. Punishment: ★ Negative motive is based on the fears of failure,losing prestige,physical pain and so on. Rewards: ★ Positive motive. Use of punishment as a motivating agent should be avoided as it kills leadership resourcefullness and spirit of free thinking. Rewards like prizes,certificates, medals etc..have psychologival value and develop in the students creative abilities and self confidence and so on. Teacher should be very careful in using rewads or punishmentas an incentive to motivate his students. ➔ Appropriate learning situation and environment: The environment will influence the learning process of the learner. A well equipped, healthy classroom environment proves a motivating force. Favourable situations like; ★ Suitability of school building. ★ Seating arrangements. ★ Affection from teachers. ★ Mutual cooperation within the classmates. All influence and motivate the learning behaviour of the child. 2 Mark Questions & Answer key words 1. What is achievement motivation? (accomplishment - goals - success) 2. What are the two types motivation ? (intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation) 3. What you mean by extrinsic motivation ? illustrate with example. (individual is motivated for obtaining particular goal or getting some external reward.eg : individual learn a skill for earning his livelihood,doing something for getting honour or reward) 4. Explain the concept of natural motivation 5. Define motivation. 4 Mark Short Essays & Value Points 1. Explain the techniques that the teacher can employ for motivating students?(child centerd approach,linkng the new learning with past,adopting effective method of teaching,providing immediate feed back of achievement,praise and re proof) 2. Discuss the role of motivation in learning ? 3. How to develop achievement motivation? 4. Explain motivation cycle? 10 Mark Essays & Value Points 1. Explain different types of motivation and classroom motivating techniques.(intrinsic motivation,extrinsic motivation..compare them, child centerd approach, linking the new learning with past, adopting effective method of teaching, providing immediate feedback of achievement, reward and punishment, promoting competition and cooperation) 2. How will you analyse the learning styles of students ? Suggest different strategies of motivation that can be Used for different learning style? 3. Briefly explain historical perceptives of motivation? B Ed. II. Sem. EDU 07 FACILITATING LEARNING Unit 3 Perspectives on learning 1. Sithara 2. Shemi 3. Smitha. M 4. Keerthana 5. Hannath 6. Fida 7. Ajay Lal 8. Greeshma 9. Ayana Sudheer BEHAVIOURIST VIEWS ABOUT LEARNING ★ THEORY OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING – PAVLOV Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, first described classical conditioning in 1899 while conducting research into the digestive system of dogs. After performing various experiments Pavlov formulated a new theory of learning known as Conditioned Response Theory. Conditioning means modification of the relation between a natural stimulus and natural response. Natural stimulus may be substituted by an artificial stimulus by which a new connection of artificial stimulus and natural response is created. Pavlov’s Experient A dog was tied on to the experimental table which was fitted with certain mechanically controlled devices. The dog was made comfortable and distractions were excluded as far as possible. Arrangement was made to give meat to the dog. When meat was presented there was natural secretion of saliva. After that a bell was rung but the dog did not salivate at the sound of the bell. Every time meat was presented the bell was rung too. The activity of presenting the meat accompanied with the ringing of the bell was repeated several times. So the sound of the bell and the sight of the meat got interconnected. Next time the dog was given no meat but the bell was rung. It was found that even in the absence of meat (natural stimulus), the ringing of the bell (artificial stimulus), caused the dog to secrete the saliva (natural response). Conclusion ★ In this experiment the conclusion was that the dog learned to salivate at the sound of the bell. Establishment of this new artificial association is what is known as conditioning. ★ The natural stimulus can thus be said to be unconditioned stimulus (UCS), the natural response unconditioned response (UCR), the artificial stimulus the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the response to the conditioned stimulus the conditioned response (CR).. Learning in Classical Conditioning In conditioning learning is considered as a habit formation and is based on the principle of association and substitution. It is simply a stimulus response type of learning where in place of a natural stimulus an artificial stimulus can evoke a natural response. In this experiment when both the artificial and natural stimuli are brought together several times the dog becomes habituated or conditioned to respond to this situation. This creates a perfect association between the types of stimuli presented together. As a result, if adequately repeated a natural stimulus could be substituted or replaced by an artificial stimulus to evoke a natural response. Classical conditioning of behavior Behaviours that have been classically conditioned may occur so automatically that they appear to be reflexive. CC behaviours are like reflexes in that they occur involuntarily, but they are unlike reflexes in that they are learned. A conditioned reflex is an automatic response that occurs as the result of previous experience. A conditioned reflex involves little conscious thought or awareness on the part of the learner. E.g. listening for thunder when you see lightning. Conditioned Emotional Response An emotional reaction such as fear of a specific stimulus is learned through CC. A conditioned emotional response is an emotional reaction that usually occurs when the autonomic nervous system produces a response to a stimulus that did not previously trigger that response. E.g. fearing the sound of the dentist’s drill. Educational Implications Avoid classically conditioned negative emotions. Anticipate situations where negative emotions might be learned through classical conditioning. Link learning with positive emotions. Arrange repeated pairing of positive feelings with certain kinds of learning,especially subjects that are anxiety provoking. Teach students to generalize and discriminate appropriately. Poor performance on one assignment or test does not mean that the student is a poor performer. Help students cope with classically conditioned anxiety. Help students learn to relax when facing anxiety provoking situations. The human fears and superstitions are developed in an individual due to conditioning. The pupil’s fears, bad habits and blind belief can be avoided through conditioning. The new learning materials are associated with the past learning. The students should be allowed to utilise and associate their past experience with the new materials. This theory is most helpful in teaching of language to small children. Teachers should associate the sound with the actual object by using audio visual aids. This theory emphasizes the idea of continuity, similarity and contrast as the factors of association in a learning situation. Montessori system is based on this theory. Thorndike’s Trial and Error Theory Connectionism or the Bond Theory Edward L Thorndike was the chief exponent of the theory of connectionism. The basis of learning according to Thorndike is an association between stimulus (S) and response (R). Such an association he called by the name bond or connection. A stimulus is connected with its response by what is known as the S – R bond. It is the strengthening or weakening of such bonds that accounts for the making and breaking of habits. On this account the theory is known as connectionism or bond theory of learning. Trial and Error Theory Thorndike thinks that learning is a mechanical process leading to formation of bonds and these are created by the learner making mistakes and then correcting them. That is why his theory is also known as trial and error theory. ❖ Trial and error is a fundamental method of problem solving. ❖ It is characterized by repeated, varied attempts which are continued until success, or until the agent stops trying. ❖ Learning begins when the organism faces a new and difficult situation – a problem. ❖ In learning organism counters errors, and with repeated trials, errors reduce. ❖ The phenomenon is called Trial and Error Learning in a simple sense. Thorndike's laws of learning Law of Readiness The law of readiness was intended to account for the motivational aspects of learning and was tightly coupled to the language of the science of neurology. In its most concise form, the law of readiness was stated as follows, “for a conduction unit ready to conduct to do so is satisfying, and for it not to do so is annoying” Law of Exercise (has two parts- the law of use and the law of disuse) This law stated that connections grow stronger when used— where strength is defined as “vigor and duration as well as the frequency of its making” and grow weaker when not used. Law of Effect The law of effect added to the law of exercise. The notion that, connections are strengthened only when the making of the connection results in a satisfying state of affairs and that they are weakened when the result is an annoying state of affairs Subordinate Law Law of Multiple Response or Varied Reaction When faced with a problem an animal will try one response after another until it finds success. Law of Set or Attitude The responses that an animal will try, and the results that it will find satisfying, depend largely on the animal’s attitude or state at the time. Law of prepotency of elements or Partial activity Certain features of a situation may be prepotent in determining a response than others and an animal is able to attend to critical elements and ignore less important ones. This ability to attend to parts of a situation makes possible response by analogy and learning through insight. Law of Response by analogy -Assimilation Due to the assimilation of analogous elements between two stimuli, an animal will respond to a novel stimulus in the way it has previously responded to a similar stimulus. Law of Associative Shifting Associative shifting refers to the transfer of a response evoked by a given stimulus to an entirely different stimulus. Educational Implications An instructor or a teacher must try to prepare the learner by bringing the mechanism of motivation into play. Whatever we want to learn or teach, we must first identify the aspects which are to be remembered and those which may be forgotten after this, we may try, to strengthen the links or connections between the stimuli and responses of those things which are to be remembered, through repetition, drill and reward. for forgetting , the connection should be weakened through disuse and unpleasant results. According to this theory the task can be started from the easier aspect towards its difficult side.This approach will benefit the weaker and backward children. the teacher should make use of the previous knowledge and experiences of the students. The child must also be encouraged to see similarities and dissimilarities between different kinds of responses to stimuli. with the help of comparison and contrast the child may be encouraged to apply the learning acquired from one situation to effectively respond to other similar situations. The learner should be encouraged to do his task independently. He must try various solutions of the problems before arriving at correct one. Habits are formed as a result of repetition. With the help of this theory the wrong habits of the children can be modified and the good habits strengthened. Practice is the main feature of trial and error method. Practice helps in reducing the errors committed by the child in learning any concept. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning modified extension of the S – R theory propounded by Pavlov. called his theory ‘operant conditioning’ as it is based on certain operations or actions which an organism has to carry out. Skinner used the operant conditioning approach to the study of learning. Operant is the response made by an organism to the surrounding environment. also known as reinforcement conditioning. Reinforcement is correlated with the response rather than with the stimuli. If the occurrence of an operant is followed by a reinforcing stimulus, then the conditioning is strengthened. Behavior changes according to its immediate consequences. Skinner’s Experiment 1 Skinner put a hungry rat in his box known as ‘Skinner box’. Inside the box there was a lever and a device for delivering a pellet of food when the lever is operated in a particular way. The rat began to move restlessly and sometimes pressed its paw on the lever, by which it could get a pellet of food. Gradually the rat learned to press the lever to get food, and the response in the form of lever-pressing got strengthened because it gave reward in the form of food. Here food (reward) reinforced the lever pressing response (operant response). It was also found that when the lever pressing was not followed by food (reinforcing stimulus), the operant response was discontinued. Skinner’s Experiment 2 he kept a hungry pigeon in his box. The pigeon has to raise its head to a particular height and peck at a particular spot in order to get its food which got automatically released on pecking. The operant behavior got strengthened. The reinforcer was the food and the reinforcement was provided by supplying food (the need-reducing reward given immediately) when the operant behavior (lifting the head to the desired height and pecking at a particular spot) was emitted by the pigeon. Here the operant is the behaviour upon which the reinforcement is contingent, i.e., lifting the head to the required height and pecking at a given spot. Educational Implications Instructional Objectives Objectives are divided into many small steps/tasks and reinforced one by one. Programmed instruction and Computer Assisted Instruction. Desired behaviour should be rewarded immediately. Reinforcers should be applied frequently so that possibility of extinction of the desired behaviour is resisted. Teaching machines. Are automatic devices, present items in an essentially predetermined sequence, permit the students to respond and give them immediate feedback. Contingency Contracts “A contract between the teacher and a student specifying what the student must do to earn a particular reward or privilege.” Applied Behaviour Analysis The application of behavioral learning principles to understand and change behavior.” GAGNE'S THEORY OF LEARNING AND INSTRUCTION GAGNE'S HIERARCHY OF LEARNING ★ Robert. M Gagne analysed and graded the learning processes in their heirarchial order of complexity and hence is popularly known as GAGNE'S hierarchy of learning. ★ Gagne described 8 types of learning. 1. Signal Learning simplest form of learning Classical conditioning form of learning Learner acquires a conditioned response to a given stimulus or signal. Examples: When there is a Red Signal in road, people stop their Vehicles. 2. Stimulus-Response learning Trial and error form of learning. This is all about getting a response to the signal. Example: Master says to his dog, 'shake hands'. At the same time he gently raises the dog's paw and shakes it,then gives him a biscuit. The master repeats the procedure. Finally the dog performs the act correctly. Repetition and contiguity are important in stimulus response learning 3. Chaining This involves putting together previously learned stimulus - response associations in a prescribed order. That is the ability to connect two or more previously-learned stimulus-response bonds into a linked sequence. Many motor skills are acquired through chain learning Examples - Writing, buttoning, proper holding of the pencil. Practice is required inorder to put together each stimulus - reponse in the proper sequence. 4. Verbal Association A form of chaining where the links are verbal units key process in the development of language skills. Images as well as previously learned verbal associations may be part of a chain. 5. Multiple Discrimination. This involves developing the ability to make appropriate (different) responses to a series of similar stimuli that differ in a systematic way The process is made more complex (and hence more difficult) by the phenomenon of interference, whereby one piece of learning inhibits another Interference is thought to be one of the main causes of forgetting Example: Young child learning colours and different shapes. 6. Concept Learning It forms the basis of the ability to generalise, classify etc. In learning a concept we respond to stimuli in terms of abstract characteristics like color, shape, position and number as opposed to concrete physical properties. 7.Principle Learning. high level learning. Learners a principle and then demonstrates the ability to apply the principle in a new situation. It forms the basis of learning of general rules, procedures etc. 8.Problem solving. Highest level of cognitive process according to GAGNÉ. It involves developing the ability to invent a complex rule, algorithm or procedure for the purpose of solving one particular problem, and then using the method to solve other problems of a similar nature. Requires higher order thinking. Without the knowledge of related principles, problems cannot be solved. Educational Implications Helps the teachers - To select appropriate teaching technique. To decide what lower skills or behaviors are to be taught before teaching higher learning skills. To break a complex task into component skills and teach those skills only that the students are lacking. GAGNE'S NINE EVENTS OF INSTRUCTION ★ Robert Gagne created a nine step process called the Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction ★ The nine events provide a framework for an effective learning process. ★ Each step addresses a form of communication that supports the learning process. ★ When each step is completed, learners can retain the information or skills being taught. “Organisation is the hallmark of effective instructional materials” - Robert Gagne 2. Informing Learners of the 1. Gaining attention Objective Most important part of the learning Describe what they will be able session. to do at the completion of the session. What should be done? Describe required performance. Explain how their learning will Pose thought provoking benefit them. questions. Explain how they can apply their Create interesting situations knowledge in future. that provoke curiosity. Present meaningful challenges. Motivate them 3. Stimulating Recall of Prior 4. Presenting the Stimulus Learning Organize your information in a Methods for stimulating recall logical and easy-to-understand include: manner. Ask if they have any previous Provide examples. experiences with the topic Use a variety of text, graphics, Ask questions about previous figures, pictures, sounds, experiences simulations, etc. to stimulate the Ask about their understanding of senses previous concepts Use a variety of approaches Give them an example of an (such as visual cues, verbal experience similar to what they instruction, and active learning) are learning. to suit people with different learning styles 5. Providing Learning Guidance 6. Eliciting Performance Ways to provide learning guidance include: Ask the learner to do something with the newly acquired behavior. Concept mapping for Make them demonstrate practicing associations skills. Mnemonics to cue and prompt Make them apply knowledge to a learning scenario or case study. Role playing for visualization of Ask questions. application Make them do a complete a role Case studies for real world playing exercise application Analogies to help knowledge construction Graphics to make visual associations 7. Providing Feedback 8. Assessing Performance After the learner attempts to Methods for assessing demonstrate their knowledge, provide performance learning include: immediate feedback of learner’s performance to assess and facilitate Written test learning. Short questionnaires Be positive Short essays Be objective Oral questioning Use first-hand observation Other measurement tool to Deliver focused and concise show that they’ve learned the feedback material or skill effectively 9. Enhancing Retention and Transfer EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS Repeated practice with effective ★ It ensures an effective and feedback is the best way to ensure that systematic learning program. people retain information and use it ★ It gives structure to the lesson effectively. plans and a holistic view to the Make them teaching. Summarize content. ★ Provide aluable information to generate examples teachers create mind maps / concept map create other types of reference material. COGNITIVE VIEWS ABOUT LEARNING Jean piaget's theory of cognitive development children move through four different stages of mental development. focuses not only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adopt previously held ideas to accommodate new information. Ø Ø Developmental Stages.. The Sensorimotor Stage (Ages: Birth to 2 Years) The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence) They are separate beings from the people and objects around them They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them The Preoperational Stage. (Ages: 2 to 7 Years) Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects. Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others. While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very concrete terms. The Concrete Operational Stage (Ages: 7 to 11 Years) Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events They begin to understand the concepts; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example The Formal Operational Stage(Ages: 12 and Up) At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems Abstract thought emerges Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information Educational Implications A focus on the process of children's thinking, not just its products. Instead of simply checking for a correct answer, teachers should emphasize the student's understanding and process they used to get the answer. Recognition of the crucial role of children's self-initiated, active involvement in learning activities. In a Piagetian classroom, children are encourage to discover themselves through spontaneous interaction with the environment, rather than the presentation of ready-made knowledge. Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress. Piaget's theory asserts that children go through all the same developmental stages, however they do so at different rates. teachers must make special effort to arrange classroom activities for individuals and groups of children rather than for the whole class group. Learning Theory of Bruner Jerome S. Bruner proposed three modes of representation 1. Enactive representation (action based) The first kind of memory. Thinking is based entirely on physical actions, and infants learn by doing, rather than by internal representation (or thinking). It involves encoding physical action based information and storing it in our memory. For example, in the form of movement as a muscle memory, a baby might remember the action of shaking a rattle. This mode continues later in many physical activities, such as learning to ride a bike. Iconic (1 - 6 years) Information is stored as sensory images (icons), usually visual ones, like pictures in the mind. For some, this is conscious; others say they don’t experience it. This may explain why, when we are learning a new subject, it is often helpful to have diagrams or illustrations to accompany the verbal information. Thinking is also based on the use of other mental images (icons), such as hearing, smell or touch. Symbolic (7 years onwards) This is where information is stored in the form of a code or symbol, such as language. In the symbolic stage, knowledge is stored primarily as words, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems, such as music. ❖ a learner even of a very young age is capable of learning any material so long as the instruction is organized appropriately ❖ ln sharp contrast to the beliefs of Piaget and other stage theorists, he suggests learning as discovery. ❖ Discovery learning is a powerful instructional approach that guides and motivate learners to explore information and to construct new ideas ❖ Discovery learning create new models of thinking and behaviour. Discovery learning in“an approach to instruction through which students interact with their environment—by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments” (Ormrod, 2001, p.442). Discovery learning – – – Educational Implications The aim of education should be to create autonomous learners (i.e., learning to learn). For Bruner (1961), the purpose of education is not to impart knowledge, but instead to facilitate a child's thinking and problem-solving skills which can then be transferred to a range of situations. Specifically, education should also develop symbolic thinking in children. In 1960 Bruner's text, The Process of Education was published. The main premise of Bruner's text was that students are active learners who construct their own knowledge. Learning Theory of VYGOTSKY SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM According to Lev Vygotsky, cognitive abilities are socially guided and constructed. Cognitive development of children is advanced through social interaction with other people. He suggests 3 zones of development. 1. Level of actual development (LAD) Refers to what a child can learn alone without the help of others Level at which the learner is capable of solving problems independently 2. Level of potential development (LPD) Level that learner is capable of reaching under the guidance of teachers or peers. Learner is potentially capable of solving problems and understanding material at a level higher than that of actual development. 3. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) Wide gap between the level of actual development and the level of potential development. ★ ZPD has to be filled by raising LAD so that the individual develops to the maximum. ★ Filling this gap is the function of education (formal and informal) ★ Vygotsky says, gap can be filled only by effective social interaction SCAFFOLDING Helping hand provided to cross the ZPD A teacher can do this through well chosen tasks SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY OF ALBERT BANDURA ❖ emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. ❖ explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, environmental influences. Examples… The most common (and pervasive) examples of social learning situations are television commercials. Commercials suggest that drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make us popular and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon the component processes involved (such as attention or motivation), we may model the behavior shown in the commercial and buy the product being advertised. Principles The highest level of observational learning is achieved by first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then enacting it overtly. Coding modeled behavior into words, labels or images results in better retention than simply observing.Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if it results in outcomes they value. Individuals are more likely to adopt a modeled behavior if the model is similar to the observer and has admired status and the behavior has functional value. Applications Social learning theory has been applied extensively to the understanding of aggression and psychological disorders, particularly in the context of behavior modification. It is also the theoretical foundation for the technique of behavior modeling which is widely used in training programs. In recent years, Bandura has focused his work on the concept of self-efficacy in a variety of contexts Educational Implications Students often learn a great deal simply by observing other people. Describing the consequences of behaviors can effectively increase appropriate behaviors and decrease inappropriate ones. Modeling provides an alternative to shaping for teaching new behaviors. Teachers and parents must model appropriate behaviors and take care that they don't model inappropriate ones. Teachers should expose students to a variety of other models. Students must believe that they are capable of accomplishing school tasks. Teachers should help students set realistic expectations for their academic accomplishments. Self-regulation techniques provide effective methods for improving behavior. Learning Theory of David Ausubel David Paul Ausubel was an American psychologist whose most significant contribution to the fields of educational psychology, cognitive science, and science education. Ausubel believed that understanding concepts, principles, and ideas are achieved through deductive reasoning. Similarly, he believed in the idea of meaningful learning as opposed to rote memorization. The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. This led Ausubel to develop an interesting theory of meaningful learning and advance organizers. Meaningful Verbal Learning According to Ausubel, meaning is created through some forms of representational equivalence between language and mental context. There are two processes involved: First discovery: Reception, which is employed in meaningful verbal learning. Second: Discovery, which is involved in concept formation and problem solving. Ausubel’s work is usually compared to Bruner’s work because both of them held similar views about the hierarchical nature of knowledge. However, Bruner gave more emphasis on discovery process. On the other hand, Ausubel was strongly oriented toward the verbal learning methods of speaking, reading, and writing. Subsumption Theory This theory is applied in the 'advance organizer' strategy developed by Ausubel. When information is subsumed into the learner's cognitive structure it is organized hierarchically. New material can be subsumed in two different ways, and for both of these, no meaningful learning takes place unless a stable cognitive structure exists. This existing structure provides a framework into which the new learning is related, hierarchically, to the previous information or concepts in the individual's cognitive structure. His works focused on verbal learning. He dealt with the nature of meaning, and believes the external world acquires meaning only as it is converted into the content of consciousness by the learner. The two types of subsumption are: Correlative subsumption - new material is an extension or elaboration of what is already known. Derivative subsumption - new material or relationships can be derived from the existing structure. Information can be moved in the hierarchy, or linked to other concepts or information to create new interpretations or meaning. From this type of subsumption, completely new concepts can emerge, and previous concepts can be changed or expanded to include more of the previously existing information. This is "figuring out.” Pre - requisites for significant learning to occur.. The material itself must have a logical meaning Learner must be proactive in the new concept of knowledge and there is adequate contact between the tendencies Learners’ existing cognitive structures must have the proper assimilation of new knowledge and ideas. Educational Implications Take into account the previous knowledge of the students. Make use of activities that are of interest to students. Create a motivational environment to learn. Make use of debates, group work, games, analogies, illustrations, and previous organizers. Use examples at all times. Be a facilitator of the learning process, clarify doubts, and allow students to be an active entity during the process CONSTRUCTIVIST LEARNING STRATEGIES Continued... Continued... ➔ ➔ ➔ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ ❖ Significance of Co-operative learning Characteristics of good learning team Co-operative and Collaborative Learning; how do differ from the traditional approach? PEER TUTORING Peer tutoring is the process between two or more students in a group where one of the students acts as a tutor for the other group mate(s). Incidental peer tutoring Structured peer tutoring ★ takes place,either at school or ★ well-structured plan while students are playing after prepared by the teachers. school or when they are ★ Implimented in specific socializing. cases for specific subjects. ★ whenever children are cooperating, playing or studying and one guides the other, incidental peer tutoring occurs.. Advantages of peer tutoring Children understand easily their peers ,since they are cognitively closer to each other. Children find their own ways of communicating with other children and many times they can present a subject to other children better than an adult Peer-tutors can give to their class-mates their own models of understanding a subject,using their personal experience, fresh ideas, examples from children's every-day life,even popular communicating symbols that make learning easier. Peer tutor gains…. Acquires deeper and clearer knowledge on the specific subject they deal with. Develop their ability and skill to teach and guide other students. Enjoy a rise in their self-esteem, feeling that they do something useful and seeing their tutees to improve. Enjoy respect from tutees The ambition of children to be selected as tutors increases competitiveness Improves communication and cooperation among students. Enhances the team spirit Helps socialization. Suggestions for good practice.. Good planning careful selection of tutors detailed design of tutoring activities ongoing supervision and support for tutors utilise school resources and ICT infrastructure keep record of the students activities discuss with peer tutors discuss with tutees CONCEPT MAPPING ❖ Graphical tools for organizing and representing knowledge. ❖ They include concepts usually enclosed in circles or boxes. ❖ Relationship between concepts is indicated by a connecting line linking two concepts. ❖ Words on the line referred to as linking words or linking phrases. ❖ They specify relationship between the two concepts Concept maps are constructed with reference to some particular question we seek to answer.We call it a focus question Joseph D.Novack and his research team at Cornell developed university in the 1970s science knowledge of students. Tool to increase meaningful learning in science and other subjects as well as to represent the expert knowledge of individuals and teams in education, government and business. Specific examples of events or objects given help to clarify the meaning of a given concept Steps.. 1. preparation (including participant selection and development of focus for conceptualization). 2. generation of statements. 3. structuring of statements. 4. representation of statements as a concept map(using multi dimensional scalling and cluster analysis). 5. interpretation of maps. 6. utilization of maps ❖ helps groups to manage the complexity of their ideas without trivializing them or losing detail. ❖ helps people to think more effectively as a group without losing their individuality Brain based learning Brain based education emphasizes how the brain learns naturally and is based on what we currently know about the actual structure and function of the human brain at varying developmental stages. based on the structure and function of the brain. It is the engagement of strategies based on how the brain works. The exciting learning about brain function and its effects on learning have the potential to revolutionize teaching and learning. Brain research has provided new knowledge about the many ways that human learn. Core principles directing Brain Based Learning The brain is a parallel processor. It can perform several activities at once The brain perceives wholes and parts simultaneously Information is stored in multiple areas of brain, and can be can be retrieved Human search for meaning is innate and search for meaning comes through pattering Emotions are critical to pattering and drive our attention, meaning and memory Learning involves focused attention and peripheral perception When the facts are embedded in natural spatial memory, we understand best Complex learning is enhanced by challenge and inhibited by stress Learning is developmental. Every brain is uniquely organized Instructional techniques associated with BBL Orchestrated immersion. It is the creating environments that fully immerse students in educational experience. Relaxed alertness Trying to eliminate the fear of learners, while maintaining a highly challenging environment. Active processin It is the allowing the learner to consolidate and internalize information by actively processing it. Twelve design principles based on Brain based research Rich stimulating environments using student created materials and products are evident on bulletin boards and display areas Places for group learning like tables and desks grouped together to stimulate social skills and cooperative work groups Link indoor and outdoor spaces so students can move about using their motor cortex for more brain oxygenation Safe places for students to be where threat is reduced particularly in large urban setting Variety of places that provide different lighting and nooks and crannies Change displays in the classroom regularly to provide a stimulating situation for brain development Provide multiple resources available also provide educational, physical and variety of setting within the classroom so that learning activities can be integrated Flexibility is common for above all. The teachable moment must be recognized and capitalized Students need quiet areas for reflection and retreat from others to use intrapersonal intelligences Students need a home space, a desk a locker area to express the learner their unique identity Teachers need to find ways to fully use city space and natural spaces to use as a primary learning setting The brain can grow new connections at any age so challenging complex experiences with appropriate feedback are best for cognitive development of learner. ❖ based on researches in neuroscience ❖ Information’s are collected and gleaned by neuro scientists and these information’s help to determine how human learning actually occurs. ❖ Music can lower stress and boost learning when used as carrier, as arousal and as primer. ❖ Art provides many learners with avenues of expression and emotional connection and release. ❖ Students should be exposed to multiple methods of assessment. Teachers also need to maintain appropriate content mastery through variety of testing programmes. Cognitive Apprenticeship mastering of knowledge and cognitive procedures through training. Traditional apprentices such as black smiths would master skills by shadowing an expert throughout the learning process. learning through apprenticeship came naturally and was the primary vehicle for transferring knowledge in many fields “Cognitive apprenticeship is defined as learning through guided experience on cognitive and metacognitive, rather than physical, skills and processes” - DONALD CLARK Goals… Recover all benefits of traditional apprenticeship, by reconciling formal schooling objectives with traditional methodologies Take advantage of the benefits of traditional apprenticeships by adapting its methodologies for the cognitive domain. Take the learning methods of traditional apprenticeships and applies them to modern cognitive learning objectives to produce effective form of higher learning Foundations of cognitive apprenticeship Teach through guided learning Make progress and desired outcomes explicitly observable Situated learning facilitates this idea Combining the idea of learning through real world context The result of this type of teaching through guided learning is that progress and outcomes are all made explicit. Teaching methods... ❖ Collins, Brown and Newman developed six teaching methods rooted in cognitive apprenticeship theory and claim these methods help students attain cognitive and metacognitive strategies. ❖ The first three of them (modeling, coaching, and scaffolding) are at the core of cognitive apprenticeship and help with cognitive and metacognitive development. ❖ The next two (articulation and reflection) are designed to help novices with awareness of problem solving strategies and execution similar to that of an expert. ❖ The final step (exploration) intends to guide the novice towards independence and the ability to solve and identify problems within the domain on their own. 1) Modelling an expert , usually a teacher within the cognitive domain or subject area demonstrate a task explicitly so that a student can experience and build a conceptual model of the task at hand. 2) Coaching observing students task performance and offering feedback and hints to sculpt the student’s performance to that of an expert. 3) Scaffolding act of putting in to place strategies and methods to support the students learning.This support can be teaching manipulative, activities and group work. 4) Articulation Any method of getting students to articulate their knowledge, or problem solving process in a domain. Three type of articulation are enquiry teaching, thinking aloud and critical student role. Through inquiry teaching teachers ask students a series of questions that allows them to refine and restate their learned knowledge and to form explicit conceptual models. Thinking aloud requires students to articulate their thoughts while solving problems. Students assuming a critical role monitor others in cooperative activities and draw conclusion based on the problem solving activities. 5) Reflection allows students to compare their own problem solving processes with those of an expert and ultimately an internal cognitive model of expertise. The goal of reflection is for students to look back and analyze their performances with desire of understanding and improvement towards the behavior of an expert. 6) Exploration Involves giving students room to problem solve on their own and teaching student’s exploration strategies. Exploration allows the student to frame interesting problems within their domain and then take initiative to solve these problems. ENGAGED LEARNING Engaged-Learning is an educational strategy in which either part or all of the class objectives are learned by working on projects with a community partner. Engaged-Learning is a type of education that put classroom skills and knowledge into practice while serving your community. Engaged-Learning is a type of education that put classroom skills and knowledge into practice while serving your community. Engaged-Learning provides an area where students work in a professional capacity with community members, their peers and the instructor of their course. Engaged-Learning relies heavily on team-work and the skills that promote effective team-building. 1. Vision of Engaged learning Responsible for learning - Students take charge of their own learning and are self -regulated. Energized by Learning - Engaged Learners find excitement and pleasure in learning. Strategic - Engaged learners continually develop and refine learning and problem-solving strategies. Collaborative - Engaged learners understand that learning is social. 2. Tasks for Engaged Learning Challenging Authentic - Tasks closely related to real -world problems and projects, build on life experiences. Integrative / interdisciplinary - challenging and authentic tasks often require integrated instruction,which blends disciplines into thematic or problem-based learning. 3. Assessment of Engaged Learning Performance-Based Generative Interwoven with Curriculum and Instruction Equitable Standards - Parents and students should be familiar with the standards that apply to all students and able to evaluate the performance of an individual or group using those standards. 4. Instructional Models and strategies for Engaged Learning Interactive - Instruction actively engages the learner. Generatve - Encourages learners to construct and produce knowledge in meaningful ways. 5. Learning Context for Engaged Learning Knowledge-Building Learning Community Collaborative - Collaborative classrooms, schools, and communities encourage all students to ask hard questions; define problems and engage in entrepreneurial activities Empathetic - Learning communities search for strategies to build on the strengths of all members 6. Grouping for Engaged Learning Heterogeneous - groups include males and females and a mix of cultures, learning styles,socioeconomic status and ages. Flexible Equitable 7. Teacher Roles for Engaged Learning Facilitator Guide Co-Learner and Co-Investigator 8. Students Roles for Engaged Learning Explorer - Students discover concepts and connections and apply skills by interacting with the physical world, materials, technology and other people. Cognitive Apprentice - Students reflect on their practice in diverse situations and across a range of tasks, and they articulate the common elements of their experiences. Producers of knowledge - Students generate products for themselves and their community that synthesize and integrate knowledge and skills. HUMANISTIC VIEWS ON LEARNING Human being have purpose in life. Learning is experience based. Learning become effective when it is need based. Freedom and independence learning. It emphasizes self motivation for better learning. Learning as a process inevitable and unique for every individual. It gives emphasis on learners self direction and independence. Concerned with the welfare of all human being. It emphasizes on learning in natural environment of human love, peace, cooperation, freedom, equality rather than of physical, money, wealth etc. Believes in co existence. This approach is based on humanism- concerned with human and humane interests EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING(Carl Ramson Rogers) Principles.. Independence, creativity and self-reliance are all facilitated. Self-criticism and self-evaluation are basic. Retaining and openness to experience. "Learning during the process of learning" Experiential learning Cycle. Plan ➔ Set a goal. ➔ Decide the activities to achieve the goal. ➔ Decide expected learning outcomes Do ➔ Engaging Activities. ➔ Self-directed learning Review ➔ Check the effectiveness ➔ Compare the actual outcomes with the expected outcomes Can be a highly effective educational method. Learner should involve in the whole learning wheel A fun learning environment helps the learner to retain the lessons for a longer period. May apply on teaching, experimenting and even gaming Implications of humanistic approach Believes in child-centered education. Emphasizes on reach, touch and teach the child according to his nature, interests, aptitude, etc. Teacher should assess student’s attitude, aptitude, potentialities,abilities, level of aspiration, his social,intellectual, physical, aesthetic development and mental health Plan his teaching activities based on this. Transfer of learning. The process of carrying over habits of thinking, knowledge, skills and attitudes from one situation to another is called Transfer of Training or Transfer of Learning. Transfer of training implies the application of knowledge to the study of various subjects and activities in various fields. Types of transfer ❖ Positive Transfer :- If the learning of one subject or activity facilitates the learning of another subject or activity, it is called positive transfer.Eg- A bus driver can drive a truck also very efficiently. ❖ Negative Transfer :- If the learning of one subject or activity interferes with the learning of another subject or activity, it is called negative transfer. Eg:- Learning Malayalam language in which we write as we pronounce and vice versa will interfere with the pronunciation and spelling of English which is a phonetic language. ❖ Zero Transfer :- If learning of one subject or activity neither facilitates nor interferes with the learning of another subject or activity, it is called zero transfer. Eg:- Transfer between learning of Language and Mathematics may be considered to be almost zero. Gagne distinguishes between Lateral and Vertical Transfer. ❖ Lateral Transfer :- It occurs when past learning is generalizable to present learning. Eg:- Certain elements of the scientific method learnt in Physics can be transferred to the solution of problems in Biology. ❖ Vertical Transfer :- It occurs when subordinate capabilities make higher order learning possible. Eg:- Learning to compute the length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle becomes a sub-skill in learning to find vectors of forces. Theories of transfer Theory of Formal Discipline This is the forerunner in the field of transfer of training. Learning in one situation improves learning and performance in another situation regardless of how different the situations might be. It was once thought that taking courses such as Latin would lead a person to think more logically. This assumption is called the "Theory of Formal Discipline." Thorndike (1923) studied it and concluded that the expectation of any large difference in general improvement of the mind from one study to another was false. Theory of Identical Elements This theory has been developed by E.L.Thorndike. According to him most of transfer occurs from one situation to another in which there are most similar or identical elements. It explains that carrying over from one situation to another is roughly proportional to the degree of resemblance in situation, in other words- more the similarity, more the transfer. The degree of transfer increases as the similarity of elements increase. Eg:- Learning to ride moped is easy after learning to ride a bicycle. Here, transfer is very fast because of identical elements in both vehicles. Theory of Generalization This theory was developed by Charles H. Judd. Theory of generalization assumes that what is learnt in task ‘A’ transfers to task ‘B’, because in studying ‘A’, the learner develops a general principle which applies in part or completely in both ‘A’ and ‘B’. Experiences, habits, knowledge gained in one situation help us to the extent to which they can be generalized and applied to another situation. Generalization consists of perceiving and understanding what is common to a number of situations. The ability of individuals to generalize knowledge varies with the degree of their intelligence. Theory of Transposition This theory was put forth by the Gestalt psychologists. This theory explains that it is the pattern of relationships which is the most important in transfer. For instance, in poetry, a particular rhythm may be repeated even though the lines differ in length and have no words in common. This theory maintains that if the learner has got the ability of insight learning, he can transpose it from one situation to another. Theory of Ideals Prof. Bagley holds that presentation of ideals has more transfer value than isolated instructions. This has been illustrated by an experiment. Bagley advised children to keep their Mathematics note book neat. These children kept their Mathematics note book neat but all other note books were more or less shabby. But when neatness was presented as an ideal, he could find better transfer effect; they learnt to keep their book, class room and surrounding neat. Factors affecting transfer of learning. Intelligence:- Transfer of training depends upon one’s ability to generalize and the ability to perceive relationships between two situations. Hence the degree of transfer is closely related to the intelligence of the learner as the above said abilities are closely and positively related to intelligence too. Attitude:- Formation of a positive and self-confident attitude towards transfer helps one to transfer the knowledge and the skill from one situation to another. Transfer of training is most effective if the students are conscious of such a goal envisaged in learning. Study habit:- Proper study habits have to be developed, so that students try to see relationship between various situations and try to apply what they know, to other situations. The over emphasis to reproduce information as it is from the text with a view to score high marks hinders transfer. Methods of teaching:- When teachers teach everything and do not encourage pupils to see relationships or to generalize by themselves, students fail to apply the knowledge obtained in new situations. Thus teacher-centered approach adversely affects transfer of training. Learning material:- Transfer depends heavily on meaningfulness of the material studied. Students should be helped to see the purpose of learning prescribed for study. This purpose should not be interpreted merely in theoretical terms but also in terms of the needs of practical life. Facilitating learning 1. Learn information meaningfully. 2. Have mental set. 3. Prerequisite skills should be practiced. 4. Numerous and varied examples. 5. Differences between two ideas should be emphasised. 6. Over learning. 7. Connect school and life outside. 8. Family and community partnership 2 Mark Questions & Answer key words 4 Mark Short Essays & Value Points 4 Mark questions. Bring out the educational implications of conditioning theories. Bring out the educational implications of operant conditioning. Distinguish between classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Compare the role of teachers in behaviourism and constructivism. “Skinner has revolutionized the concept of reward in terms of reinforcement”. Do you agree? Explain the different schedules of reinforcement according to Skinner. 10 Mark Essays & Value Points 1. Explain GAGNE’S hierarchical classification of learning styles. Explain humanistic views on learning with the special reference to Carl Roger's Self theory of learning. What are the educational implications of this theory ? Explain the learning theories of Piaget and bruner. 5. Explain the learning theory of VYGOTSKY with special emphasis to its educational implications. 6. Elucidate the contributions of Bandura towards educational psychology 7. Explain Ausbels theory of cognitive learning.. 8. Explain the three modes of representation according to Bruner. 9. Critically evaluate the various theories based on behaviourism and constructivism with special emphasize on classroom strategies. B Ed. II. Sem. EDU 07 FACILITATING LEARNING Unit 4 Remembering and Forgetting Group Members 1.Linsha VV 2.Manju K 3.Mrudula P 4.Najiya CK 5.Nusra E 6.Varsha K Memory Memory consist in remembering what has previously been learned WOODWORTH (1948 Elements of memory 1. Learning 2. Retention 3. Recall 4. Recognition Learning Primary condition of memory It is the acquisition of new experience Learning experience should be interesting.So that they could create mental images that would be revived when needed It depends upon active observation, Intelligent study, strong will, creative interest, constant repetition Retention It is the process of preserving the material learnt Influenced factors are, ○ nature of the learning material ○ Amount of learning done ○ Method of learning ○ Speed of learning ○ Mental set ○ Attention ○ Interest ○ Intension ○ Appreciation Recall It means revival of memorised things Recall are two types Spontaneous recall Deliberate recall Factors helpful for easy recalling are, Right motives Healthy physique Right emotion Absence of inhibition Perfection of clues Recognition It is the awareness of the experience by which we identify the material retained and recall Recognition are two type 1.Indefinite recognition 2.Definite recognition Characterisation of Good Memory Easy learning , Accurate recognition Quick recall , Long retention Memory is remarkable mental process and a mental system which receives information from stimuli, retains it and makes it available on a future occasion Capacity that permits humans to benefits from past experience Tulving, 1985 Multistage model of memory sensory. Sensory registor. Selective Short Term Input attention Memory Encoding Long Term Retrieval memory(LTM) Way to remember things in STM…..So they go to LTM Chunking Organizing items into familiar, manageable units Mnemonic device Rehearsal Types of memory 1.Sensory memory All of the environmental information that we are capable of sensing Probably stays with us in the sensory memory for a very brief time 2.Short Term Memory We recall digits better than letters The stuff we encode from the sensory goes to STM Events are encoded visually acoustically or semantically Holds about 7itmes for about 20 seconds 3.Long Term Memory Unlimited storehouse of information Explicit (declerative memory) Implicit(non declarative memories) Memory structure *. Part of memory is oriented to events just occurred Strategies to improve memory Economic methods for memorising are : Recitation method : The mental recitation of something is called recitation. A student must always be encouraged to recite learnt material to himself. After reading a lesson a few times the student may be encouraged to try to review the whole thing without referring to the original material. Mental repetition is an active way of study and not only saves the time but also ensure longer retention of materials learnt. Spaced and Unspaced Method: Spaced method is one in which there are time intervals in learning trials. On the contrary in the unspaced method learning is done at one sitting, without any intervals being used. The spaced method has many advantages over the unspaced method. Not only fatigue eliminated by giving ocational intervals, there is also an Part and whole methods : In the part method, the learning material is divided into parts and each part is memorized separately. On the other hand, in the whole method, every time the material as a whole is read from the beginning till the end. Rote and intelligent methods : If a person is learning and memorizing something without understanding it, he is said to be using the rote or unintelligent method of memorization. On the other hand the intelligent method involves deep understanding of the learning material. Grouping and the rhythm methods : Memorization is considerably fascilitated by rhythm and grouping. It is easier to memorize poetry than prose because of the rhythm involved. Attention is one of the major components of memory. Try to study in a place of free distractions such as television music and other distractions. Students who study regularly remember the material far better than those who do all of their studying in one marathon session. Relate new informations to things you already know. Pay extra attention to difficult information. Try grouping similar concepts and terms together or make an outline of the notes and textbook readings to help group related concepts. Sleep is important for memorising and learning. Taking a nap after you learn something new can actually help you learn faster and remember better. Forgetting concept Loss, permanent or temporary ,of the ability to recall or recogonize something learned earlier Forgetting is failing to recall what has been learned when attempting to do so. Forgetting is accelerated by engaging in mental processes that take place during the interval between remembering and forgetting. Definitions According to Munn(1967) “ forgetting is the loss , temporary or permanent , of the ability to recall or recognize something learnt earlier”. According to Drever(1952) “ forgetting means failure at any time to recall an experience , when attempting to do so, or to perform an action previously learnt” Causes of forgetting 1. Inadequate impression 2. Disuse or decay with passage of time 3. Interference of newly learnt material 4. Emotional disturbance 5. Alteration of stimulus condition 6. Inadequate mental set 7. Illness and brain injury 1. Inadequate impression Inadequate learning is likely to be forgotten easily. Forced learning either results in no learning or has very temporary effect. Sometimes we pay least attention while learning and materials thus learnt will be soon forgotten. 1. Disuse or decay with the passage of time The theory of disuse postulates that any accumulated knowledge will be gradually forgotten if it is not regularly practised. 3.Interference of newly learnt material The effect of new learning over the recall of previous learning is known as retroactive inhibition,where as the effect of earlier learning on the“ recall of later learning is known as proactive inhibition.Retroactive’ ‘ indicates acting backward while ‘proactive’ indicates acting forwards. 4.Emotional disturbance Emotions play a key role in forgetting as well as in learning.Sudden rise of strong emotions blocks the process

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