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Heart Valves

• Four main valves control blood flow in the heart, ensuring it moves in the correct direction.
• The tricuspid valve is located between the right atrium (top chamber) and the right ventricle (bottom chamber).
• The tricuspid valve allows blood to flow into the right ventricle and prevents backflow into the atrium.
• The pulmonary valve is located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery.
• The pulmonary valve allows blood to flow to the lungs and prevents backflow into the ventricle.
• The mitral (bicuspid) valve is located between the left atrium and the left ventricle.
• The mitral valve allows blood to flow into the left ventricle and prevents backflow into the atrium.
• The aortic valve is located between the left ventricle and the aorta (the largest artery in the body).
• The aortic valve allows blood to flow out of the body and stops it from flowing back into the ventricle.
• Blood flow summary includes: right atrium to right ventricle via the tricuspid valve, right ventricle to lungs via the pulmonary valve, left atrium to left ventricle via the mitral valve, and left ventricle to the body via the aortic valve.

Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries

• Arteries carry blood away from the heart.
• Arteries mostly carry oxygen-rich blood (except for the pulmonary artery).
• Arteries have thicker walls to handle high blood pressure.
• High blood pressure in arteries is due to the heart pumping blood forcefully.
• Arteries do not have valves because the pressure keeps the blood moving forward.
• Veins carry blood back to the heart.
• Veins mostly carry oxygen-poor blood (except for the pulmonary vein).
• Veins have thinner walls than arteries.
• Veins have low pressure, requiring valves to keep blood moving in the correct direction and prevent backflow.
• Capillaries are the smallest and thinnest type of blood vessel in the body.
• Capillaries act like tiny bridges connecting arteries (which carry blood away from the heart) and veins (which carry blood back to the heart).
• Capillaries facilitate the exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste.
• Capillaries are very small and thin, allowing oxygen and nutrients like glucose to pass from the blood into surrounding tissues.
• Carbon dioxide and other waste products move from the tissues into the blood for removal by the lungs or kidneys.
• Capillaries are so small that red blood cells pass through them in single file,
• Capillaries have thin walls (one cell thick) to allow for easy exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste between the blood and the body's tissues.

Systemic & Pulmonary Circulation

• Systemic Circulation is part of the circulatory system that carries oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the rest of the body and returns oxygen-poor blood back to the heart.
• The purpose of systemic circulation is to deliver oxygen and nutrients to all organs and tissues.
• Systemic circulation also removes waste products.
• Pulmonary Circulation is part of the circulatory system that carries oxygen-poor blood from the heart to the lungs and returns oxygen-rich blood back to the heart.
• The purpose of pulmonary circulation is to exchange gases (getting oxygen into the blood and removing carbon dioxide) in the lungs.
• Systemic circulation feeds the body with oxygen and nutrients.
• Pulmonary circulation helps the blood recharge with oxygen in the lungs.

Differentiation vs. Mitosis

• Differentiation is the process where a stem cell or unspecialized cell becomes a specialized cell.
• During differentiation, a cell changes and takes on a specific job, such as becoming a muscle, nerve, or skin cell.
• A cell goes from being a general-purpose cell to a specific, specialized one, determining its function based on the body's needs.
• A stem cell in bone marrow may differentiate into a red or white blood cell to perform a specific job in the body.
• Mitosis is the process of cell division where a single cell splits into two identical cells.
• Both new cells resulting from mitosis have the same genetic material (DNA) as the original cell.
• When skin is cut, the body uses mitosis to create new skin cells to heal the wound.
• Differentiation is about changing a cell into a specific type, like turning into a muscle or nerve cell.
• Mitosis is about copying a cell to make identical new cells for growth or repair.
• Differentiation involves changing into a specialized cell, while mitosis involves making exact copies of the cell.

Stem Cells

• Stem cells are special cells in the body that can develop into many different types of cells and are like the body's repair team, helping to grow and fix tissues.
• Totipotent stem cells are the "superhero" of stem cells that can become any type of cell in the body, plus the extra cells needed to form a whole new organism, such as a placenta.
• Totipotent stem cells have the potential to create an entire human or animal and are formed right after an egg is fertilized.
• An example of a totipotent stem cell is the first few cells created after an egg and sperm join.
• Pluripotent stem cells are powerful but not as powerful as totipotent stem cells, which can become almost any cell in the body, such as skin, heart, or nerve cells, but are unable to form a whole organism on their own.
• Embryonic cells are pluripotent because they become many different types of cells in the body.
• Multipotent stem cells are more limited than pluripotent stem cells but are still important, and can only become a few types of related cells, such as red or white blood cells.
• Adult stem cells, like those in bone marrow, are multipotent.
• Totipotent stem cells can become any cell and even create a whole new organism, like the very first cells after fertilization.
• Pluripotent stem cells can become almost any cell in the body but not an entire organism, like embryonic stem cells.
• Multipotent stem cells can only become a few related cells like blood or skin cells.

EKG

• An EKG (electrocardiogram) records the electrical activity of the heart.
• An EKG helps doctors understand how the heart is functioning by showing the rhythm and electrical impulses triggering the heartbeat.
• The P wave is first wave on the EKG that shows the electrical signal and makes the upper chambers of the heart (atria) contract and pushes blood into the lower chambers (ventricles).
• The QRS complex is the biggest wave on the EKG and represents the electrical signal, making the lower chambers of the heart (ventricles) contract to pump blood out.
• The QRS complex has three parts: Q wave (a tiny dip down), R wave (sharp spike up), and S wave (a dip down after the R wave).
• The T Wave shows the recovery of the ventricles after a contraction.

Layers of the Heart

• The heart has three main layers, each serving a distinct function.
• The endocardium is the inner layer of the heart, lining the chambers and valves.
• The endocardium’s smoothness reduces friction and helps blood flow easily through the heart.
• The myocardium is the thick, muscular middle layer responsible for the heart's pumping action.
• When the myocardium contracts, it pumps blood out of the heart and into the rest of the body.
• The epicardium is the outer layer of the heart that acts as a protective covering and helps anchor the heart to surrounding structures.
• The epicardium secrets fluids that reduce friction as the heart beats.

Oxygen Diffusion into the Alveoli

• Oxygen must pass through several layers of tissue to diffuse into the alveoli (tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs).
• The layers for oxygen to pass through include the alveolar epithelium (thin layer of cells lining the alveoli).
• The alveolar epithelium is the first layer that oxygen encounters.
• Oxygen passes through the Interstitial Space (very thin fluid layer).
• The interstitial Space is the second layer that oxygen encounters.
• Oxygen then passes through the Capillary Endothelium (thin layer of cells lining the blood vessels).
• The Capillary Endothelium is the third layer that oxygen encounters.
• Oxygen then passes through the red blood cells. This is the fourth layer the oxygen encounters.
• These layers are all very thin, allowing oxygen to diffuse quickly from the air in the alveoli into the blood in capillaries

Respiratory Rate

• The respiratory rate is the number of breaths taken per minute, indicating how fast or slow someone is breathing.
• For adults, the normal respiratory rate is between 12 and 20 breaths per minute.
• Fast breathing is when the rate is above 20 breaths per minute.
• Slow breathing is when the rate is below 12 breaths per minute.
• Changes in respiratory rate can occur due to exercise, stress, illness, or respiratory problems.
• Acidic Acidosis is a condition where the body has too much acid in the blood, making the blood more acidic than normal.
• When someone has Acidic Acidosis, their respiratory rate goes up.
• High blood pressure, also called hypertension, can be caused by sodium in the body and the constriction of blood vessels.
• When too much sodium is consumed, the body retains more water.
• Additional water increases the volume of blood in blood vessels raising pressure on the walls of arteries, leading to high BP.
• Blood vessels can become narrowed or constricted due to various factors like stress, smoking, or certain chemicals in the body.
• The more blood vessels constrict, the harder the heart works to pump blood, leading to high blood pressure.

Angina, Fermentation & Breathing

• Angina is a chest pain or discomfort that occurs when the heart doesn't get enough oxygen, usually because the arteries that supply blood to the heart become narrowed or blocked.
• Normal heart function: the heart gets oxygen through the coronary arteries which helps the heart work properly.
• Angina occurs when the coronary arteries are narrowed, blood can't flow, and the heart gets enough oxygen.
• Due to not enough oxygen, the heart uses less efficient ways of making energy like fermentation which results in chest pain or discomfort.
• During inhalation, the lungs expand to fill with air.
• The main muscles involved in inhaling are the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.
• The diaphragm is the primary muscle for breathing that contracts downward making more space in the chest and lungs to fill with air.
• Intercostal muscles are between the ribs that contract and pull the ribs up and out, expanding the chest during inhalation.
• When breathing out, the air is pushed oue of the lungs with help from to the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles
• During exhalation, the diaphragm relaxesand moves back up pushing air out of the lungs
• Intercostal muscles that relax, let the ribs move back down and squeeze the ir out of the lungs.
• Inhalation includes: The diaphragm moves down, and the intercostal muscles lift the ribs up, letting air into the lungs.
• Exhalation includes: the diaphragm moves up, and the intercostal muscles let the ribs come down, pushing air out of the lungs.
• Intrapulmonary Pressure: Pressure inside the lungs that changes with breathing, helping air move in and out.
• Pulmonary Pressure: Pressure in the pulmonary arteries, which carry blood to the lungs from the heart.

Anemia

• Anemia is a condition where there aren't enough healthy red blood cells or hemoglobin to carry adequate oxygen to the body's tissues.
• Types of Anemia include Iron-Deficiency Anemia caused by lack of iron.
• Types of Anemia include Vitamin Deficiency Anemia caused by lack of Vitamin B12 or folate.
• Types of Anemia include Aplastic Anemia caused by bone marrow not producing enough red blood cells.
• Types of Anemia include Hemolytic Anemia caused by the premature destruction of red blood cells.
• Types of Anemia include Sickle cell Anemia a genetic disorder where red blood cells are sickle-shaped.
• Types of Anemia include Chronic Disease Anemia caused by long-term diseases (like kidney disease or cancer).
• Types of Anemia include Thalassemia is a genetic disorder that affects hemoglobin production.

Red Blood Cells vs. White Blood Cells

• Red blood cells are primarily responsible for transporting oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body.
• Red blood cells return carbon dioxide to the lungs for exhalation.
• Red blood cells contain hemoglobin, a protein that binds to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
• Red blood cells are biconcave (disc-shaped with a slight indent in the center).
• Red blood cells lack a nucleus in their mature form.
• Red color in red blood cellsis due to hemoglobin.
• Red blood cells are smaller: around 7-8 micrometers in diameter with a lifespan of about 120 days.
• Red blood cellsa are produced in the bone marrow through a process called erythropoiesis and there is only one type.
• White blood cells are part of the immune system anddefend the body against infections, pathogens, and foreign substances.
• White blood cells help in identifying and destroying harmful invaders like bacteria, viruses and parasites.
• White blood cells vary in shapes (can be round, irregular or amoeboid) and are nucleated (have a nucleus).
• White blood cells appear colorless or pale due to the lack of hemoglobin and larger (typically 12-17 micrometers in diameter).
• The lifespan of white blood cells varies while some live only for a few hours to a few days, others, like memory cells, can live for years.
• White blood cells produced in bone marrow but, some types mature in other lymphatic organs, such as the thymus or lymph nodes
• Several types of white blood cells include Neutrophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Eosinophils, and Basophils.
• Each type of white blood cell has its own specific immune functions.

Blood Typing

• Blood Typing classifies blood based on the presence or absence of specific antigens and antibodies in the blood.
• The ABO blood group system is based on the presence of two antigens: A and B, on the surface of red blood cells.
• There are four main blood types in this system: Types include A, B, AB, and O.
• Type A blood has A antigens on red blood cells and anti-B antibodies in the plasma.
• Type B blood has B antigens on red blood cells and anti-A antibodies in the plasma.
• Type AB has both A and B antigens on red blood cells but no anti-A or anti-B antibodies in the plasma.
• Type AB is the universal recipient type because these individuals can receive blood from any ABO type.
• Type O has neither A nor B antigens on red blood cells but has both anti-A & anti-B antibodies in the plasma.
• Type O is the universal donor because their blood can be donated to any ABO group.
• The universal donor (Type O) can donate to any blood type.
• The universal recipient (Type AB+) can receive blood from any blood type.
• The RH-Factor is a protein that may or may not be on the surface of red blood cells.
• If the protein (RH-Factor) is present, you are RH+. If the protein is not present, you are RH-.
• For blood transfusions, those who are Rh-positive can receive blood from both Rh+ and Rh-,
• Those who are Rh-negative can only receive blood from Rh- donors.

Blood Components

• Blood is made of four parts: plasma, red blood cells (RBC), white blood cells (WBC), and platelets.
• Plasma is the liquid part of the blood and serves as a transport system.
• Plasma carries nutrients (food and vitamins), waste products(carbon dioxide to be removed), hormones (control body functions), and proteins( help with clotting and fighting infections).
• Plasma makes up 55% of whole blood
• Red blood cells are the most common cells in the blood.
• Their main job is to carry oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body and bring back carbon dioxide to the lungs to be exhaled.
• They are red because of hemoglobin and are shaped like a disc.
• Red blood cells make up about 45%.
• White blood cells are the defenders of your body, protecting from infections and diseases.
• White blood cells attack harmful things like bacteria, viruses, and other invaders.
• White blood cells are larger than red blood cells though there are fewer overall.
• Platelets are tiny cell fragments, not full cells.
• They help the blood clot and makes up a very small part of the blood
• The liquid that carries everything around in the body is plasma (55% of blood).
• Red blood cells carry oxygen to your body (45% of blood)
• White blood cells fight infections (small number but important).
• Platelets help with blood clotting and is tiny but essential for stopping bleeding)
• The liquid that carries everything around in the body is plasma (55% of blood).
• Red blood cells carry oxygen to your body (45% of blood)
• White blood cells fight infections (small number but important).
• Platelets help with blood clotting and is tiny but essential for stopping bleeding)

Hemoglobin & Coagulation

• Hemoglobin is a protein in red blood cells that acts as a transport truck.
• Hemoglobin picks up oxygen in the lungs, carries it through the blood, and delivers it to the rest of the body,
• Then, hemoglobin picks up carbon dioxide from the body and carries it back to the lungs to be exhaled.
• Hemoglobin binds to oxygen in the lungs and delivers it to the body.
• Hemoglobin binds to carbon dioxide from the body and takes it back to the lungs to be breathed out,
• Hemoglobin helps keep the blood's pH balanced by binding to hydrogen ions.
• Hemoglobin helps carry oxygen to the body and carbon dioxide away from the body and, Coagulation where blood clots to stop bleeding is the body's way of protecting the body by forming a blood clot to seal a wound.