Anatomy & Physiology Review - Heart, Circulation, Blood, PDF

Okay, here is the converted text from the images, formatted in Markdown: ### TOPIC: Heart valves **DATE:** The heart has four main valves, which act like gates to control the flow of blood and make sure it moves in the right direction. 1. **Tricuspid valve** - Located between the right atrium (t...

Okay, here is the converted text from the images, formatted in Markdown: ### TOPIC: Heart valves **DATE:** The heart has four main valves, which act like gates to control the flow of blood and make sure it moves in the right direction. 1. **Tricuspid valve** - Located between the right atrium (top chamber) and right ventricle (bottom chamber). * Allows blood flow into the right ventricle and keeps it from flowing back into the atrium. 2. **Pulmonary valve** - Located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery (which allows blood to flow to the lungs), and prevents it from flowing back into the ventricle. 3. **Mitral Valve** (Bicuspid Valve) - Located between the left atrium and left ventricle. * Allows blood flow into the left ventricle and prevents it from flowing back into the atrium. 4. **Aortic valve** - Located between the left ventricle and the aorta (the largest artery in the body). * Allows blood to flow out to the body and stops it from flowing back into the ventricle. **Summary** * Tricuspid: Right atrium blood flow to Right ventricle * Pulmonary: Right Ventricle blood flow to Lungs * Mitral: Left atrium blood flow to left ventricle * Aortic: Left ventricle blood flow out of body --- ### TOPIC: Arteries & Veins & Capillaries **DATE:** **Arteries** * Carry blood flow away from the heart. * Mostly carry oxygen-rich blood (except the pulmonary artery). * Arteries have thicker walls to handle high blood pressure. * Have high blood pressure as blood is pumped forcefully from the heart. * No valves because the pressure keeps the blood moving forward. Arteries - Carry blood away from the heart, thicker walls, and usually carry oxygen-rich blood. **Veins** * Carry blood back to the heart. * Mostly carry oxygen-poor blood (except the pulmonary). * Have thinner walls because the pressure is thinner. * Have low pressure, so they need valves to keep moving the blood in the right direction. * Have valves to prevent blood from flowing backwards. Veins - carry blood back to the heart, thinner walls & usually carry oxygen-poor blood. **Capillaries** Capillary - The smallest & thinnest type of blood vessel in your body. They are like tiny bridges that connect the arteries (which carry blood away from the heart) and veins (which carry blood back to the heart). What happens in capillaries? Exchange of gases, nutrients and waste. Capillaries are where the magic happens. Since they are so small and thin, oxygen & nutrients like glucose from the blood can pass through the walls of the capillaries and move into the surrounding tissues. At the same time carbon dioxide and other waste products from the tissues move into the blood to by carried away to the lungs or kidneys for removal from the body. Key Points: Capillaries are super tiny, so small that red blood cells pass through them in single file. Thin walls (Just one cell thick) allow for easy exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste between the blood and the body's tissues. --- ### TOPIC: Systemic Circulation & Pulmonary Circulation **DATE:** * **Systemic Circulation** - Part of the circulatory system that carries oxygen-rich blood from the heart to the rest of the body and then returns oxygen-poor blood back to the heart. * **Purpose** - To deliver oxygen and nutrients to all the organs and tissues to pick up waste products. * **Pulmonary Circulation** - Part of the circulatory system that carries oxygen-poor blood from the heart to the lungs and then returns oxygen rich blood back to the heart. * **Purpose** - To exchange gases (getting oxygen into the blood and removing carbon dioxide) in the lungs. **Key Differences** * Systemic circulation - feeds the body with oxygen & nutrients. * Pulmonary circulation - helps the blood recharge with oxygen in the lungs. * Systemic circulation - carries oxygen rich blood to the body and returns oxygen poor blood to the heart. * Pulmonary circulation - carries oxygen poor blood to the lungs and returns oxygen rich blood to the heart. --- ### TOPIC: Differentiation vs Mitosis **DATE:** * **Differentiation** - process where a stem cell or unspecialized cell becomes a specialized cell. This means the cell changes and takes on a specific job, like becoming a muscle cell, a nerve cell or a skin cell. The cell goes from being a general-purpose cell to a specific specialized one. It decides what kind of cell it will be based on the needs of the body. * *Example*: A stem cell in your bone marrow may differentiate into a red blood cell or a white blood cell to do a specific job in the body. * **Mitosis** - process of cell division which a single cell splits into two identical cells. Both of the new cells have the same genetic material (DNA) as the original cell. * *Example*: When you cut your skin, your body uses mitosis to make new skin cells to heal the wound. **Key Differences:** * Differentiation is about changing a cell into a specific type like turning into a muscle or nerve cell. * Mitosis is about copying a cell to make identical new cells like when you grow or repair tissue. **In Short!** * Differentiation = changing into a specialized cell. * Mitosis = making exact copies of the cell. --- ### TOPIC: Stem Cells **DATE:** Stem Cells - Special cells in the body that have the ability to develop into many different types of cells. They are like the body's repair team helping to grow and fix tissues. **Types of Stem Cells** 1. **Totipotent Stem Cells** - The Superhero of stem cells. They can become any type of cell in the body plus the extra cells needed to form a whole new organism for example - A placenta. * Totipotent Stem cells have the potential to create an entire human or animal. They are the first cells formed right after an egg is fertilized. * *Example*: First few cells created after an egg and sperm join 2. **Pluripotent Stem Cells** - Are powerful but not as powerful as totipotent. They can still become almost any cell in the body like skin, heart or nerve but are unable to form a whole organism on their own. * *Example*: Embryonic cells are pluripotent because they become many different types of cells in the body. 3. **Multipotent Stem Cells** - More limited than pluripotent but are still important. They can only become a few types of related cells like red blood cells or white blood cells. * *Example*: Adult Stem cells, like those in bone marrow or multipotent. **Summary** * Totipotent - can become any cell and even create a whole new organism like the very first cells after fertilization. * Pluripotent - Can become almost any cell in the body, but not an entire organism like embryonic stem cells. * Multipotent - can only become a few related cells like blood cells or skin cells. --- ### TOPIC: EKG **DATE:** An EKG (Electrocardiogram) is a test that records the electrical activity of the heart. It helps doctors to understand how your heart is functioning by showing the rhythm and electrical impulses that trigger your heartbeat. **Waves Recorded in an EKG** 1. **P wave** - The first wave on the EKG . Shows the electrical signal that makes the upper chambers of the heart (atria) contract and push blood into the lower chambers (ventricles). 2. **QRS complex** - The biggest wave on the EKG - represents the electrical signal that makes the lower chambers of the heart (ventricles) contract to pump blood out. * QRS complex has 3 parts: * Q Wave: A tiny dip down * R Wave: A sharp spike up * S Wave: A dip down after the R wave 3. **T Wave** - This wave shows the recovery of the ventricles after they contract, it's a gentle, upward wave after The QRS. --- ### TOPIC: Layers of the Heart **DATE:** \*The heart has three main layers, each serving a distinct function. 1. **Endocardium**: This is the INNER layer of the heart. It lines the chambers and valves. Its smooth to reduce friction and helps blood flow easily through the heart. 2. **Myocardium**: This is the thick muscular MIDDLE layer. It's responsible for the hearts pumping action. When the myocardium contracts, it pumps blood out of the heart and into the rest of the body. 3. **Epicardium**: This is the outer layer of the heart. It acts as a protective covering & also helps anchor the heart to surrounding structures. It also secretes fluids that reduce friction as the heart beats. --- ### TOPIC: Oxygen diffusion into the Alveoli **DATE:** Oxygen has to pass through several layers of tissue to diffuse intro the alveoli (tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs) 1. **Alveolar Epithelium** (Thin layer of cells lining the alveoli) * This is the first layer that oxygen encounters 2. **Intersitial Space** (very thing Fluid Layer) * This is the second layer that oxygen encounters 3. **Capillary Endothelium** (Thin layer of cells lining the blood vessels) * This is the third layer that oxygen encounters 4. **Red blood cells** - This is the the 4th layer oxygen encounters. \*These layers are all very thin allowing oxygen to diffuse quickly from the air in the alveoli into the blood in capillaries. --- ### TOPIC: Respiratory Rate & Acidotic Acidosis & HBP causes **DATE:** * Respiratory Rate is the number of breaths you take per minute. It shows how fast or slow you're breathing. * Normal Rate: For adults respiratory rate is usually between 12 and 20 breaths per minute. * Fast Breathing - When the rate is above 20 breathes per minute. * Slow Breathing- when the rate is below 12 breathes per minute. * Changes in respiratory rate can happen due to things like exercise, stress, illness or respiratory problems. * Acidotic Acidosis: condition where the body has too much acid in the blood, which makes the blood more acidic than normal. * When someone has Acidic Acidosis their respiratory rate goes up. * High Blood Pressure * Also called hypertension * Can be caused by Sodium in the body and the constriction of blood vessels. * When you consume too much sodium it causes your body to retain more water. The extra water increases the volume of blood in your blood vessels which raises the pressure on the walls of your arteries leading to high BP. * Blood vessels can become narrowed or constricted due to various factors like stress, Smoking or certain chemicals in the body. The more your blood vessels constrict the harder the heart has to work to pump blood through your body which leads to high BP. --- ### TOPIC: Angina & Fermentation & Breathing **DATE:** * **Angina** - a chest pain or discomfort that happens when your heart doesn't get enough oxygen. This usually occurs because the arteries that supply blood to your heart become narrowed or blocked. * **Normal Heart Function**: Your heart gets oxygen from the blood flowing through the coronary arteries. This helps the heart work properly * **Angina** - when the coronary arteries are narrowed, blood can't flow well, and the heart doesn't get enough oxygen. Because of this the heart has to use less efficient ways of making energy like Fermentation (which doesn't need oxygen but doesn't work as well) causing chest pain or discomfort. * **Breathing** * **Inhale** - When you breathe in your lungs expand to fill with air. The main muscles involved are! 1. Diaphragm: This is the main muscle for breathing when you inhale it contracts downward making more space in your chest & lungs to fill with air 2. Intercostal Muscles: These muscles are between your ribs, when you inhale they contract and pull the ribs up and out, expanding the chest. * **Exhale** - When you breathe out the air is pushed out of your lungs, the muscles involved are! 1. Diaphragm When you exhale, the diaphragm relaxes and moves back up, pushing air out of the lungs. 2. Intercostal Muscles: These muscle also relax letting the ribs move back down and the muscles air out of the lungs * **Summary** * Innalation: the diaphragm moves down, and the intercostal muscles lift the ribs up, letting air into your lungs * Exhalation: The diaphragm moves up, and the Intercostal muscles Let the ribs come down pushing air out of your lungs * Intrapulmonary Pressure-Pressure inside the lungs that changes with breathing helping more air in and out * Pulmonary Pressure-Pressure in the Pulmonary Arteries, which carry blood from the heart to the lungs --- ### TOPIC: Anemia **DATE:** Anemia - a condition where you don't have enough healthy red blood cells or hemoglobin to carry enough oxygen to your tissues. **Types of Anemia:** 1. Iron-Deficiency Anemia - Caused by lack of iron. 2. Vitamin Deficiency Anemia - caused by lack of Vitamin B 12 or folate. 3. Aplastic Anemia - Caused by bone marrow not producing enough red blood cells. 4. Hemolytic Anemia - Caused by the premature destruction of red blood cells 5. Sickle cell Anemia - genetic disorder where red blood cells sickle-shaped. 6. Chronic diseases Anemia - Caused by long-term disease (like Kidney disease or Cancer). 7. Thalassemia - genetic disorder that affects hemoglobin production. --- ### TOPIC: Red blood cells vs White Blood cells - *Study Guide* **DATE:** * **Red blood cells Overview** * Primarily responsible for transporting oxygen from the lungs to the rest of the body & returning carbon dioxide to the lungs for exhalation. * Contains hemoglobin, a protein that binds is oxygen and carbon dioxide * Biconcave (disc-shaped with a slight indent in the center) * Lacks a nucleus in their mature form * Red due to the presence of hemoglobin * Smaller around 7-8 micrometers in diameter * Life span of about 120 days * Produced in the bone marrow through a process called erythropoiesis * Only one type of red blood cells * **White blood cells Overview** * Part of the immune system and defends the body against infections, pathogens & foreign substances * Helps in identifying & destroying harmful invaders like bacteria, viruses & parasites. * Varies in shapes (can be round, irregular or amoeboid) has no fixed shape. * Nucleated (has a nucleus) * Appears colorless or pale due to the lack of hemoglobin * Larger typically 12-17 micrometers in diameter * Life Span varies, some live only for a few hours to a few days while others like memory cells can live for years --- ### TOPIC: **DATE:** * Produced in bone marrow but some types mature in other lymphatic organs such as the thymus or lymph nodes * Several types of white blood cells: 1. Neutrophils 2. Lymphocytes 3. Monocyte 4. Eosinophils 5. Basophils * Each contain their own Specific immune Functions. --- ### TOPIC: Blood Typing **DATE:** Blood Typing is a way of classifying blood based on the presence or absence of specific antigens and antibodies in the blood. **The ABO Blood Group System** The ABO System is based on the presence of two antigens A and B on the surface of Red blood cells There are 4 main blood *types in this system:* * **Type A:** Has A antigens on the surface of the red blood cells and anti- B antibodies in the plasma * **Type B:** Has B antigens on the surface of the red blood cells and anti-A antibodies in the plasma. * **Type AB:** Has Both A & B antigens on the Surface of red blood cells and no anti A or and anti B antibodies in the plasma. * This blood type is the universal recipient type because they can receive blood from any ABO Type. * **Type O:** Has no A or B antigens on the Surface of red blood cells but has both anti A & anti B bodies in the plasma. This is the universal Donor type because their blood can be donated to any ABO group. **Blood Transfusion Compatibility** * Universal Donor: Type O- (can donate to any blood type) * Universal Recipient: Type AB+ ( can receive blood from any blood type) **RH-Factor** - a protein that may or may not be on the surface of your red blood cells. * If the protein is present you are RH+ * If the protein is not present you are RH- **Blood Transfusions RH-Factor** * If you're Rh- positive you can receive blood. * If you're Rh- negative you can only receive blood. --- ### TOPIC: The components Of Blood **DATE:** Blood is made of Four parts 1. **Plasma** - The liquid part of your blood * Its like the transport system for everything in your blood. * Plasma carries the Following: 1. Nu**trients - Food &** vitamins 2. Waste products - Carbon dioxide to be removed 3. Hormones - that help control your body's functions 4. Proteins - help with clotting and Fighting infections * Plasma makes up 55% of your blood 1. **Red blood cells (RBC)** * Red blood cells are the most common cells in your blood * Their main Job is to carry oxygen from your lungs to the rest of your body and bring back Carbon dioxide to your lungs to be exhaled * They are red because of the protein hemoglobin that carries oxygen * They are shaped like Disc - Bicon cave Disc * Red blood cells make up about 45% of your blood 1. **White Blood cells (WBCs)** * White blood cells are the defenders of your Body * They protect you from infections and diseases by attacking harmful things like bacteria, viruses and other invaders * They are larger than red blood cells. There are the fewer white blood cells than red blood Cells