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Questions and Answers
What is the significance of serum amyloid A (SAA) in veterinary medicine?
What is the significance of serum amyloid A (SAA) in veterinary medicine?
Which acute-phase protein levels rise within 6 hours of an inflammatory event and peak at 24-48 hours?
Which acute-phase protein levels rise within 6 hours of an inflammatory event and peak at 24-48 hours?
What is the primary function of fibrinogen in the blood?
What is the primary function of fibrinogen in the blood?
What does an increase in conjugated bilirubin indicate?
What does an increase in conjugated bilirubin indicate?
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Which condition is associated with decreased fibrinogen levels?
Which condition is associated with decreased fibrinogen levels?
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How are bile acids primarily synthesized?
How are bile acids primarily synthesized?
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What common test is used to measure haptoglobin levels?
What common test is used to measure haptoglobin levels?
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Which hepatic enzymes are categorized as leakage enzymes?
Which hepatic enzymes are categorized as leakage enzymes?
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What percentage of bile acids are actively resorbed in the ileum?
What percentage of bile acids are actively resorbed in the ileum?
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Which condition can lead to increased serum bile acid (SBA) levels?
Which condition can lead to increased serum bile acid (SBA) levels?
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Which of the following conditions would likely cause hyperproteinemia?
Which of the following conditions would likely cause hyperproteinemia?
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What can cause decreased serum bile acid (SBA) levels?
What can cause decreased serum bile acid (SBA) levels?
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What is the largest internal organ in the body?
What is the largest internal organ in the body?
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Which of the following statements is true regarding plasma proteins?
Which of the following statements is true regarding plasma proteins?
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What is included in total plasma protein but not in total serum protein?
What is included in total plasma protein but not in total serum protein?
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What condition is likely to cause hyperproteinemia?
What condition is likely to cause hyperproteinemia?
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Which method is commonly used for estimating plasma or serum protein concentrations quickly?
Which method is commonly used for estimating plasma or serum protein concentrations quickly?
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Which function is NOT performed by plasma proteins?
Which function is NOT performed by plasma proteins?
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How can altered protein concentrations indicate potential health issues?
How can altered protein concentrations indicate potential health issues?
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Among these, which test is useful for separating and measuring different protein populations?
Among these, which test is useful for separating and measuring different protein populations?
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What could indicate a potential issue in hydration status when assessing total protein levels?
What could indicate a potential issue in hydration status when assessing total protein levels?
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What is the primary function of albumin in plasma?
What is the primary function of albumin in plasma?
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Which organ synthesizes albumin?
Which organ synthesizes albumin?
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Which type of globulin is responsible for antibody production?
Which type of globulin is responsible for antibody production?
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What does a decrease in the albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio indicate?
What does a decrease in the albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio indicate?
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In dogs, horses, sheep, and goats, the albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio is typically:
In dogs, horses, sheep, and goats, the albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio is typically:
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Which of the following proteins is classified as a negative acute-phase protein?
Which of the following proteins is classified as a negative acute-phase protein?
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How is the albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio calculated?
How is the albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio calculated?
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Which of the following is true regarding globulin production?
Which of the following is true regarding globulin production?
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What is the primary function of the gallbladder?
What is the primary function of the gallbladder?
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Which condition is characterized by an increase of bilirubin in the blood?
Which condition is characterized by an increase of bilirubin in the blood?
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What molecular form of bilirubin is primarily bound to albumin in the bloodstream?
What molecular form of bilirubin is primarily bound to albumin in the bloodstream?
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What is a common clinical manifestation of hyperbilirubinemia?
What is a common clinical manifestation of hyperbilirubinemia?
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Which of the following is a function of hepatocytes?
Which of the following is a function of hepatocytes?
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How can the presence of jaundice be assessed?
How can the presence of jaundice be assessed?
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What is the consequence of liver dysfunction on plasma protein synthesis?
What is the consequence of liver dysfunction on plasma protein synthesis?
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Which of the following tests is less sensitive and may not indicate liver problems until significant damage has occurred?
Which of the following tests is less sensitive and may not indicate liver problems until significant damage has occurred?
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What is the primary method of ammonia removal from the circulation?
What is the primary method of ammonia removal from the circulation?
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Which enzyme is considered liver specific in dogs, cats, and primates but not in horses or ruminants?
Which enzyme is considered liver specific in dogs, cats, and primates but not in horses or ruminants?
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What are leakage enzymes, and how do they behave during liver damage?
What are leakage enzymes, and how do they behave during liver damage?
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What role do bile acids testing play in liver diagnostics?
What role do bile acids testing play in liver diagnostics?
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Which enzyme requires more severe liver damage for its release compared to others?
Which enzyme requires more severe liver damage for its release compared to others?
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In which situation is hyperammonemia likely to present?
In which situation is hyperammonemia likely to present?
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How quickly can elevations in ALT be seen following liver damage?
How quickly can elevations in ALT be seen following liver damage?
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What is a common cause of elevation in AST levels?
What is a common cause of elevation in AST levels?
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Study Notes
Viral Hepatitis
- Viral hepatitis is inflammation of the liver caused by viruses.
- Several viruses can cause hepatitis, including hepatitis A, B, C, D, and E.
- Symptoms of viral hepatitis can range from mild to severe and may include fatigue, nausea, vomiting, jaundice, and abdominal pain.
- The severity of the disease can vary.
- Diagnosis often involves blood tests to detect viral markers.
- Treatment options vary depending on the type of virus and the severity of the infection.
Protein Function
- Proteins form the structural matrix of all cells, organs, and tissues.
- They maintain osmotic pressure and serve as enzymes for biochemical reactions.
- They act as buffers in acid-base balance, serve as hormones, and function in blood coagulation.
- They also protect the body against pathogenic microorganisms.
- Many constituents of the plasma are carried by proteins.
Total Protein
- Total plasma protein includes fibrinogen. However, total serum protein excludes fibrinogen.
- Total protein levels can be affected by altered hepatic synthesis, protein distribution or excretion, dehydration, and/or overhydration.
- The test is useful in determining patient hydration status.
- Dehydration leads to hyperproteinemia, and overhydration results in hypoproteinemia.
Albumin
- Albumin is one of the most important proteins in plasma and serum.
- It comprises 35% to 50% of total plasma protein in most animals.
- Hepatocytes synthesize albumin, and any diffuse liver disease can cause a decrease in albumin levels.
- Renal disease, dietary intake, and intestinal protein absorption also affect albumin concentrations.
- Albumin is a major binding and transport protein responsible for maintaining plasma osmotic pressure.
Globulins
- Alpha globulins are primarily transport proteins synthesized in the liver.
- High-density lipoproteins (HDL) and very low-density lipoproteins (LDL) are included within the alpha globulins.
- Beta globulins include complement (C3, C4), transferrin, and ferritin responsible for iron transport.
- Gamma globulins are also known as immunoglobulins, and are synthesized by plasma cells.
- They play a crucial role in antibody production and immunity.
Albumin/Globulin Ratio
- The albumin/globulin ratio is calculated by dividing albumin concentration by globulin concentration.
- In dogs, horses, sheep, and goats, albumin is typically higher than globulins (A/G > 1.0).
- In cattle, pigs, and cats, albumin levels are usually equal to or lower than globulin levels (A/G < 1.0).
- Alterations in the A/G ratio can indicate abnormal protein levels.
Acute-Phase Proteins
- Acute-phase proteins are produced by hepatocytes in response to injury or inflammation.
- Albumin and transferrin act as negative acute-phase proteins because their concentration typically decreases during injury or inflammation.
- Examples of acute-phase proteins include serum amyloid A (SAA), C-reactive protein (CRP), fibrinogen, haptoglobin, ceruloplasmin, α1-acid glycoprotein (AGP), and major acute-phase protein (MAP).
Fibrinogen
- Hepatocytes synthesize fibrinogen, an insoluble protein forming the matrix of blood clots.
- Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin, crucial for blood clotting.
- Decreased fibrinogen levels are associated with reduced clotting ability.
- Fibrinogen constitutes 3% to 6% of total plasma proteins.
- It is not found in serum.
Liver Enzymes
- Leakage enzymes, like ALT and AST, are released from damaged hepatocytes.
- Elevated levels can indicate damage to hepatocytes.
- ALT is primarily found within hepatocytes and increases rapidly with hepatocellular damage (often within 12 hours) and is considered a better indicator of liver damage than AST.
- AST is both cytoplasmic and mitochondrial, and elevation in its levels indicates more severe liver damage compared to ALT.
- GGT is an inducible enzyme predominantly found within the liver; elevated levels often indicate liver disease, particularly if obstructive liver disease is present.
- ALP is an inducible enzyme found in hepatocytes, osteoblasts, chondroblasts, intestines, and placenta. Increased levels are closely associated with cholestasis, especially in small animals.
Hepatic Markers
- Bilirubin, bile acids, and ammonia are markers of hepatobiliary clearance.
- Bilirubin is produced by the breakdown of hemoglobin and is conjugated in the liver.
- Bile acids are synthesized in the liver from cholesterol, conjugated with glycine or taurine, are secreted into the bile, and absorbed in the ileum.
- Ammonia is produced in the intestines by bacteria. Hepatic cells convert it to urea, which is then cleared by the kidneys.
- Leakage enzymes (ALT, AST) and inducible enzymes (ALP, GGT) are used to assess liver function.
Hepatocyte Tests
- Bilirubin and bile acids are hepatocyte function tests.
- Most hepatocyte function tests are less sensitive, and problems are not usually detected until more than two-thirds of liver tissue is compromised.
Hepatic Synthesis
- The liver is involved in the synthesis of many components, including blood urea nitrogen (BUN), glucose, cholesterol, albumin, globulins, and coagulation factors.
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Description
Explore the important information about viral hepatitis, including its causes, symptoms, and treatment options. Additionally, delve into the diverse functions of proteins in the body, from structural roles to their involvement in biochemical reactions. This quiz provides a comprehensive overview of these crucial biological topics.
