week 3

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Questions and Answers

What is one of the indications for fluid therapy?

Technical Reports

Imaging Faults

Resuscitation (correct)

Radiographic Positioning

In evaluating a radiographic image, which of the following is NOT considered an element of quality?

Nutritional Factors (correct)

Exposure

Technical Faults

Positioning

Which potential fault must be accounted for when interpreting radiographic images?

Inadequate radiation exposure (correct)

Environmental factors

Species differences

Radiographic Diagnosis

What is one clear advantage of digital radiography over film radiography?

Faster processing time Signup and view all the answers

When creating a simplified radiographic report, what is prioritized in the differential diagnosis?

Most significant factors Signup and view all the answers

What is one approach to prevent adverse events during anaesthesia in domestic species?

Improving patient preparation Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a common risk factor for anaesthetic related morbidity?

Presence of comorbidities Signup and view all the answers

What is a crucial step to take before intubation when faced with difficult intubation?

Pre-oxygenation of the patient Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately reflects ultrasonographic principles?

Ultrasound is a useful tool for assessing soft tissues Signup and view all the answers

What advantage does abdominal ultrasound have over radiography?

It provides real-time imaging of soft tissues Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a method for monitoring the central nervous system during anaesthesia?

Mucous membrane colour Signup and view all the answers

What is the aim regarding the anaesthetic stage and plane during surgical anaesthesia?

Stage III, plane 2 Signup and view all the answers

Which physiological parameter is NOT typically recorded as part of monitoring during anaesthesia?

Body temperature Signup and view all the answers

If an increase in respiratory rate is observed, what could it indicate during anaesthesia?

Light plane of anaesthesia Signup and view all the answers

What document must be filled out completely and serves as a source of information for future anaesthetics?

Anaesthetic record Signup and view all the answers

Which reflex is NOT included in the assessment of the central nervous system during anaesthesia?

Oculocardiac reflex Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of observing trends in physiological parameters during anaesthesia?

It assures adequate anaesthetic level. Signup and view all the answers

Which of these signs would suggest a patient is in a deep plane of anaesthesia?

No palpebral reflex Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the action of tetracycline antibiotics?

They inhibit protein synthesis and are bacteriostatic. Signup and view all the answers

Which class of penicillins includes amoxicillin?

Class D Signup and view all the answers

Doxycycline is commonly used to treat which of the following conditions?

Rhinitis and bronchopneumonia Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is true regarding the use of tetracyclines in young animals?

They can bind to calcium and may cause issues. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of Class C penicillins?

They include combinations with β-lactamase inhibitors. Signup and view all the answers

Which antibiotic is associated with causing oesophageal erosion?

Doxycycline Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of an anti-staphylococcal penicillin?

Cloxacillin Signup and view all the answers

What is the activity spectrum of tetracyclines?

Effective against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant advantage of digital radiography compared to traditional methods?

Requires less time Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT a characteristic of deterministic effects of radiation?

Effects can occur randomly Signup and view all the answers

What principle emphasizes keeping radiation exposure to personnel as low as reasonably achievable?

ALARA principle Signup and view all the answers

What is a disadvantage of digital radiography?

High initial setup cost and maintenance Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a principle of radiation protection?

All exposures should be minimized Signup and view all the answers

Which statement describes a characteristic of stochastic effects of radiation?

Probability of occurrence increases with dose Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following should be a part of a strategy to limit occupational exposure?

Recording staff exposure Signup and view all the answers

What is a requirement for a controlled area in radiation protection?

Walls must be shielded Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following antibiotics is classified as a fluoroquinolone?

Enrofloxacin Signup and view all the answers

What is the main mechanism of action for β-lactam antibiotics?

Interfere with bacterial wall synthesis Signup and view all the answers

Which class of antimicrobials primarily treats Gram -ve aerobic bacteria?

Aminoglycosides Signup and view all the answers

What is the spectrum of activity for tetracyclines?

Broad spectrum including Gram +ve, Gram -ve, and protozoa Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following drugs is a combination of sulfonamides and dihydrofolate reductase inhibitors?

Trimethoprim-sulfadiazine Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT an example of a macrolide antibiotic?

Clindamycin Signup and view all the answers

Which class of antibiotics is known to inhibit protein synthesis and has a broad spectrum of activity?

Macrolides and lincosamides Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary indication for enrofloxacin in veterinary medicine?

Respiratory tract infections in small mammals Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following does NOT represent a characteristic of nitroimidazoles?

They inhibit protein synthesis Signup and view all the answers

Which antibiotic is primarily used for treatment of anaerobic infections?

Metronidazole Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Basic Ultrasonography

The presentation is about basic ultrasonography.
Learning outcomes include understanding ultrasound generation/delivery and differences between probes.
Students will learn to describe ultrasonographic images, identify image faults, and discuss advantages/disadvantages of abdominal ultrasound and radiography.

Basic Ultrasound Principles

Ultrasound uses sound waves to form images within tissues.
Piezo-electric crystals in a transducer oscillate, producing ultrasound waves.
Returning sound waves create an electrical voltage.
The signal is amplified, converted, and displayed as a dot on the screen.

Interaction with Tissues

Reflection: Sound waves bounce off structures, creating echoes.
Refraction: Change in direction of sound waves due to different tissue speeds.
Diffraction: Sound waves bend around structures or openings.
Attenuation: Loss of sound wave energy due to absorption or scattering.

Ultrasound Probes

Linear Array: Line of crystals, producing rectangular images; has large footprint, no near field artifact.
Curved Array: Curved line of crystals, fan-shaped image; some near field artifact, smaller footprint.
Phased Array: Line of crystals, fan-shaped image with greater depth; electronically steered, smaller footprint.

Frequency

High Frequency: Good axial resolution, more rapid beam attenuation, poor penetration.
Low Frequency: Poor axial resolution, less rapid beam attenuation, better penetration.
Axial resolution is the ability to determine two points along the beam's path.

Depth

Images given in the slide show the depth/view possible within the abdominal area.

Gain

Adjusts the overall brightness of the image.
High gain increases noise.

Time Gain Compensation (TGC)

Echoes from deeper tissues are weaker due to attenuation (loss of energy as it travels).
TGC controls brightness at varying levels throughout the tissue.

Focus/Focal Zone

Area optimized by focusing the sound wave.
Often demonstrated by a triangular marker.
Improves the lateral resolution of the image.
Lateral resolution is the ability to distinguish two points perpendicular to the beam.

Ultrasound Artifacts

Reverberation: Parallel bright lines caused by multiple reflections.
Mirror Image: Reflection at a curved, reflective surface.
Acoustic Enhancement: Bright area deep to fluid structure due to lack of attenuation.
Poor Probe Contact: Insufficient clipping/gel.
Acoustic Shadowing: Complete reflection and distal shadow due to highly reflective interfaces.
Edge Shadowing: Acoustic shadow distal to cystic structure due to beam being wider than the structure.
Slice Thickness: Beam wider than a cystic structure.

Echogenicity

Isoechoic: Similar shades of grey to normal tissue.
Hypoechoic: Darker shade than normal tissue.
Hyperechoic: Lighter shade than normal tissue.
Anechoic: Black, devoid of internal echoes.

Echotexture

Homogeneous: Uniform distribution of grey shade/dot size.
Heterogeneous: Non-uniform distribution of grey shade/dot size.

Roentgen Signs

Number: Number of lesions
Size: Size of lesions
Shape: Shape of lesions
Margin: Sharpness of lesion edges
Location: Position of lesion
Echogenicity: Lesion's echo pattern
Echotexture: Lesion's internal structure
Artefacts: Imaging errors or non-pathological variation

Abdominal Ultrasound

Indications (Elective): Any abdominal organ condition, tumor identification/description, staging of neoplasia, intra-abdominal biopsy, and reproductive tract investigation.
Indications (Emergency): Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) scan to detect free fluid, often following trauma. Specific areas to scan: diaphragmatic hepatic (DH), hepato-renal (HR), spleno-renal (SR), cysto-colic (CC).
Benefits: Non-invasive, safe, avoids general anesthesia, excellent morphological information, real-time tissue sampling, relatively inexpensive.
Disadvantages: Limited functional information, difficult to detect diffuse disease, requires sampling for disease classification, patient clipping often required, sedation sometimes required, gas interference with sound transmission, technically demanding, images not interpretable by all specialists.

Patient Preparation

Food: Ideally withhold food 8 hours before examination, but allow water.
Clipping: Extensive clipping to remove stray hairs.
Gel: Liberal application of coupling gel.
Sedation: Administer sedation as required.
Position: Lateral recumbency, or as guided.
Room: Darkened, quiet room; Ensure table appropriate height, vet bed or similar for comfort.
Assistance: Sufficient assistance from nurses.

Abdominal Ultrasound - Right vs. Left Lateral Recumbency

Right: Liver, gastric fundus and body, spleen, left limb pancreas, left kidney and adrenal, small intestine, colon, urinary bladder (+/-prostate)
Left: Right liver, biliary system, pylorus, duodenum, right pancreas, right kidney and adrenal.

Ultrasound Guided Techniques

Abdominocentesis: Sterile fluid sample collection
Cystocentesis: Sterile sample collection
FNA, Trucut: Mass, liver, or spleen sampling for cytology/histology
Aseptic preparation, spirit to skin, protect probe in glove with gel.

Echocardiography

Indications: Heart murmurs, ECG abnormalities, radiographic abnormalities, hypertension, dyspnea, syncope, arterial thromboembolism, identification phenotypically normal animals prior to breeding.
Procedure: Clip right and left sides over apex beat; patient placed in lateral recumbency on table with cut-out; heart falls towards thoracic wall to allow visualization through lung window; Specific areas of interest are scanned(R= third to sixth intercostal space, L= fifth to seventh intercostal space).
Standard Views: Right parasternal long axis, right parasternal short axis, papillary muscle, chordae tendinae, mitral valve, aortic valve, subcostal view, left apical 4&5 chamber view.

Echocardiography - Modes

B mode: 2D image of heart
M mode: Motion of the heart
Doppler: Blood flow, colour flow doppler.

Thoracic Ultrasound

Appearance of normal lung surface: Smooth hyperechoic line
Ribs: Hyperechoic line with distal acoustic shadow.
Use of TFAST protocol

TFAST

Thoracic Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma
Examines for pleural and pericardial effusions 5-point scan (Chest tube site (CTS), Pericardial site (PCS), Diaphragmaticohepatic view (DH))
Hypoechoic effusion = fluid present.
Absence of glide sign = air present.

Vet BLUE assessment

Pulmonary parenchyma assessment, caudodorsal (cdll), middle (mdll), perihilar (phll), cranial (crll) lung.

Various issues that can appear in an image, such as reverberation, mirror image, acoustic enhancement, poor probe contact, acoustic shadowing, edge shadowing, slice thickness.

Summary of Ultrasound

Understand basic ultrasonographic principles.
Recognize commonly encountered artefacts.
Understand patient preparation.
Recognize benefits of abdominal ultrasound over radiography.
Have a basic understanding of thoracic ultrasound use.

Common Complications & Accidents in Veterinary Anaesthesia

Learning Objectives: Describe approaches to prevention and management of adverse events and outline common risk factors in veterinary anaesthesia.
Respiratory Complications: Difficult intubation (pre-oxygenation, ET tubes, stylet, position changes, anaesthetics, flexible fibre-optic endoscopy), alternative airway securing methods (retrograde intubation, temporal tracheostomy)
Physiology Recap: Anaesthetic drugs depress the respiratory centre, central & peripheral chemoreceptors, intercostal muscles & diaphragm. High O2 concentrations → Atelectasis, Hypoventilation, Hypercapnia, Hypoxaemia.
Respiratory Complications (Hypercapnia): Elevated ETCO2 (> 45 mmHg ) is caused by metabolism (fever, hyperthermia, malignant hyperthermia, seizures, hyperthyroidism) and/or pulmonary perfusion (↑ Cardiac output, ↑ Blood pressure). Treatment involves addressing the underlying cause, decreasing anaesthesia depth (if possible), and using manual or mechanical ventilation.
Respiratory Complications (Rebreathing of CO2): Due to dead space, inadequate fresh gas flow, insufficient expiratory time (High RR), leak inner tube Bain system, exhausted carbon dioxide absorber, inspiratory/expiratory valves dysfunction.
Respiratory Complications (Airway Obstruction): ET tube occlusion (mucous, blood, mass, regurgitation, and "shark fin" appearance), suction, re-intubation, broncho-constriction (asthma), kinked ET tube, and obstruction in the expiratory limb of the breathing system.
Respiratory Complications-Regurgitation: inappropriate fasting times, drugs, hiatal hernia, gastroesophageal reflux, lighter plane of anaesthesia, change in position. Prevention/minimization: adequate fasting time, rapid sequence induction + cuffed ET tube, ET tube slightly cuffed on extubation, adequate depth of anaesthesia, avoid positional changes, and using drugs (metoclopramide, maropitant, omeprazole). Treatment: head down, suction +/- lavage with saline/tap water, measure pH of regurgitated material (if acidic, instil sodium bicarbonate diluted with water into oesophagus), careful with sedation.
Respiratory Complications (Hypoxaemia): Low PaO2 (< 80 mmHg). Causes: hypoventilation, impaired diffusion (pulmonary oedema, pneumonia, pulmonary fibrosis), ventilation/perfusion mismatch, right-to-left shunts, decreased inspired fraction of O2, airway or equipment obstruction.
Respiratory Complications (Consequences of Hypercapnia): Up to 60 mmHg → stimulation of SNS (mild tachycardia, hypertension); 60-90 mmHg → vasodilation, tachycardia, central nervous system depression → apnoea, respiratory acidosis, decreased cardiac contractility, arrhythmias; > 90 mmHg → CNS & cardiovascular depression, arrhythmias, death.
Respiratory Complications (Hypoventilation): Decreased or inadequate ventilation. Causes include positioning (abdominal distension, pregnancy, laparoscopic surgery), pulmonary disease/airways obstruction, neuromuscular disease, drug-induced respiratory depression (e.g., opioids), pain, obesity, and hypothermia.
Respiratory Complications (Apnoea/Respiratory Arrest): Causes: Drugs (induction agents, ketamine, opioids); excessive depth of anaesthesia; vagal stimulation; weaning from ventilator/manual ventilation; nerve damage, cardiac arrest). Treatment: oxygen administration, intubation + ventilation, decrease depth of anaesthesia, and CPR.
Respiratory Complications (Tachynoea) ↑ RR, ↓ ETCO2. Causes: inadequate anaesthetic depth, nociception/pain, increased CO2 production (hyperthermia), hypoxaemia, hypercapnia, and drug administration (opioids in conscious animals).

Cardiovascular Complications

Bradycardia: Decreased HR → decreased cardiac output & tissue perfusion. Causes: Drugs (opioids, alpha 2 agonists), excessive anaesthetic depth (↓ SNS tone), raised intracranial pressure (Cushing's reflex), vagal response (change of position, surgical manipulation), hypothermia, and electrolytes imbalances (↑K+). Solutions: Address potential cause/s, Drug antagonists, Anticholinergic agents (atropine/glycopyrrolate).
Atrioventricular Blocks (AV Blocks) (A-V Blocks): First degree, Second degree Mobitz I (Wenckebach), Second degree Mobitz II, Third degree AV block. Treatments: Drug reversal (e.g., alpha2 agonists), anticholinergic drugs administration, and pacemaker.
Tachycardia: Increased HR → decreased diastolic filling, ↓ coronary perfusion time. Causes: SNS stimulation (pain, surgical stimulation), drugs (anticholinergic, ketamine), anaemia, haemorrhage, hypovolemia, hypotension, hypoxaemia, pheochromocytoma. Treatment: Address underlying cause, ß-blockers.
Ventricular Tachycardia: Abnormal heart rhythm. Causes: Drugs, heart disease, pain. Treatment: Lidocaine bolus +/- CRI; if effect on CO & BP, and/or pulseless V tach/V fib → defibrillation
Hypotension: MAP < 60-70 mmHg; SAP < 90 mmHg. Causes: ↓SVR (vasodilation, anesthetic drugs, hypothermia, sepsis, anaphylaxis, hypercapnia), ↓Preload (dehydration, hypovolemia, 3rd spacing), ↓Contractility, bradycardia. Treatment: volatile agent levels (↓), fluid therapy, vasopressors, drugs (antagonists, anticholinergics, anti-arrhythmics), and treat underlying cause. Increased afterload
Causes of hypotension: ↓SVR (vasodilation, hypothermia, sepsis), ↓preload (dehydration), ↓ contractility (structural issues), and bradycardia. Treatment options: Address cause, decrease volatile agent levels, increase fluid therapy, and vasopressors.

Haemorrhage

Decreased plasma volume, hemoglobin concentration, and O2 carrying capacity.
Body response: Increased CO, minute volume, and O2 tissue extraction up to a certain level, then hypoxaemia, lactic acidosis, and hypotension. Blood volume measurements: 60 mL/kg cats, sheep, cattle, rabbits; 90 mL/kg dogs, horses; consider transfusion if loss > 20%; use whole blood, packed red blood cells, or hemoglobin-based O2 products to replace lost blood.

Hypothermia

Temperature drops below 38.5°C in dogs and cats. Causes: Effect of anaesthetic drugs on thermoregulatory centre, and skin and body cavities exposure to low ambient temperature. Phases: Redistribution (vasodilation → from core to periphery), linear (↓ core temp: heat loss > heat production), plateau (heat production=heat loss). Consequences: decreased metabolism, prolonged recovery, vasoconstriction, increased O2 consumption, shivering, hypoventilation, increased wound infections, impaired coagulation, increased intraoperative blood loss, increased hospitalization, and death. How-to prevent/treat: Minimal clipping, Prewarming (↑ room temperature), avoiding alcohol-based products for scrubbing, warm fluids, close monitoring, low gas flow, and active rewarming.

Inadequate Depth of Anaesthesia

Sudden increases in heart rate/arterial blood pressure. Changes in respiratory rate/pattern. Presence of strong palpebral reflex & changes in jaw tone. Sudden movements (can be mistaken for nociception/pain). Treatment is increasing the inhalation agent level, propofol, alfaxalone, or ketamine.

The 7 Hof Anaesthesia

Hypothermia, Hyperthermia, Hypercapnia, Hypocapnia, Hypotension, Haemorrhage, Hypoxaemia/Hypoxia

Confidential Enquiry into Perioperative Small Animal Fatalities (CEPSAF)

Risk factors for peri-anaesthetic mortality, data from large amounts of sedation/anaesthesia records. Increase odds of death: increasing ASA Status, Urgent/Emergency procedure, Major (v. minor) procedure, age >12 years, weight < 5Kg (dogs), <2Kg or >6Kg (cats), BCS, inhalant induction (&maintenance), intermittent positive pressure ventilation (IPPV), sedation alone, and endotracheal intubation in cats? and fluid therapy in cats?

References (General)

Various veterinary textbooks, articles, and websites, including but not limited to, BSAVA Manual of Canine and Feline Anaesthesia and Analgesia, Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia, Veterinary Anaesthesia and Analgesia The Fifth Edition of Lumb and Jones, AAHA Fluid Therapy Guidelines for Dogs and Cats.

Interpretation, Image Quality and Faults

Learning objectives: Describe a radiographic image (quality, positioning, adequacy of exposure to tissues of interest), describe potential image faults/means to avoid/identify them, discuss the advantages/disadvantages of digital vs. film.
Radiographic report components (Simplified): Description (patient name, signalment, history, area imaged, projections), Radiographic Diagnosis (Description of image, summary of findings, identifying variances from normal, technical faults), Differential Diagnosis (prioritized list of most significant, and incidental findings), and Recommendations (further recommendations, imaging, surgeries, diagnostics, ongoing management)
How-to remember to comment on images (mnemonic): "Pink Camels Collect Extra Large Apples" [Positioning, Centering, Collimation, Exposure, Labelling, Artefacts]
Area Imaged and Positioning: Name area of interest; determines the necessary projections to be performed; minimize non-pathological variations via standard views, positioning, and exposure settings.
Radiographic Projections: Named according to the direction the primary beam penetrates; lateral images are named according to the lying side of the animal.
Patient Positioning: Minimizing geometric distortion (via the use of standard views, magnification minimization, and centering techniques), orthogonal views for 3-D identification, and centering to the anatomical area of interest using bony landmarks; prevents scatter.
Geometric Distortion: Beam divergence as it leaves the generator; affects the image quality.
Magnification: Relation between object-focus distance, object-film distance, and film-focal distance affects the image clarity.
Orthogonal Views: Use of orthogonal views (e.g., DV, VD, lateral) to create a 3-D understanding of an anatomical area; prevents ambiguous results.
Centering: Centre to the anatomical area of interest; collimating close to area of interest; aligning the crosshair of the collimator with the area of interest.
Collimation: Accurate collimation reduces exposure of unnecessary areas.
Exposure Settings; KV, mA, time, and Film Focal Distance; the factors that can be varied in exposure settings to influence the image quality.
Exposure-KVp: Peak voltage across cathode & anode; controls electron kinetic energy; more KVp → more photons, higher energy, more penetrative.
Exposure- mA & time: Tube current to cathode filament; controls number of electrons, higher mA → more heat in the cathode filament, increased number of electrons & photons (increased intensity).
Exposure- FFD (Film Focal Distance): Distance between the focal spot and plate; Quantity of radiation at any point is proportional to 1/(FFD)2.
X-ray interaction with matter: Attenuation (Absorption: removing energy transferred to the patient; increasing with atomic number; creates contrast; Scatter: removed energy emitted away from patient; worse with increasing KV; causes loss of contrast, and fogging); Transmission & interaction with film/screen detector = film blackening.
Film/Screen Faults: Overexposure (too dark due to overdeveloping), Overdeveloped, Fogging, Underexposure (too white due to underexposure), Underexposed, Poor fixer washing, prolonged storage.
Digital Faults: Post-Exposure (partial erasure, fading), Workstation (incorrect algorithm or cropping, or Uberschwinger artifact).
Describing the Image: Identifying pathologies (number, size, shape, margin, and appearance) and other factors (opacity, border effacement).
Opacity: How tissue attenuates X-ray; gas → radiolucent, fat → radiolucent, soft tissue/fluid → radiolucent, bone → radiopaque, metal → radiopaque.
Border Effacement (Silhouette Sign): Structures of similar opacity are in contact; cannot distinguish the margins of the 2 structures; possible causes are right middle lobe pneumonia, pleural effusion, and peritoneal effusion and/or other pathologies.
Finishing the report: Identifying abnormalities, summarizing findings, considering differentials (DAMNITV), and performing further diagnostics.

Monitoring in Veterinary Anaesthesia

Objectives: Describe the use and interpretation of physical examination findings in the assessment of the anaesthetized patient; identify clinical signs used to assess anaesthetic depth; describe the use and interpretation of electronic equipment in physiological monitoring.
Aim: Maintain adequate depth of anaesthesia, assess adequacy of analgesia, maintain function of different body systems (physiologically normal), evaluate responses to treatment, and staff/patient safety during veterinary anaesthesia.
Monitoring methods: Using the five human senses (smell, sight, hearing, touch, and taste).
Equipment: Monitoring equipment, recording, and evaluation of trends.
Legal document: Anaesthetic record must be filled completely (and recording at least every 5 minutes) and serve as documentation for future reference, emergency situations and/or potential legal disputes.
Central Nervous System Monitoring: Species differences; eye position and movement; palpebral reflex, lacrimation, nystagmus; jaw tone, laryngeal/pharyngeal reflexes, physiological parameters (heart rate, respiratory rate, blood pressure), anal tone, pedal reflex, righting reflex, and evaluating trends.
Respiratory System Monitoring: Respiratory Rate (RR) & Rhythm, observation of chest & reservoir bag movements.
Capnography: Breath-by-breath analysis of expired CO2 (end-tidal CO2 - ET CO2); FiCO2 (inspired CO2 levels); Graphical representation of capnometry throughout the respiratory cycle.
Pulse Oximetry: Measures degree of Hb saturation with O2; calculates Oxy-Hb; Normal range: 98-100%; Hypoxaemia if SpO2 < 90-95%; continuous measurement; detects hypoxaemia earlier than human eye; positioned appropriately, audible signal for each pulse.
Cardiovascular System Monitoring: Monitor tissue O2 delivery; Heart Rate (HR), Rhythm; Blood Pressure, Mucous Membrane Colour, Peripheral Pulses Palpation (rate, quality, synchronicity with heart beats/rhythms), and Capnography/Capnometry.
ECG: Graphic representation of changes in electrical activity, HR & Rhythm, Electrolyte disturbances, and Myocardial hypoxia.
Blood Pressure Measurement: Pressure= Force of blood flow/Area (arterial wall); Blood Pressure = Cardiac Output X Systemic Vascular Resistance (Stroke Volume X HR → Preload, Afterload, Contractility); Values for ≠ species & breeds [different from humans]; non-invasive (oscillometry, high definition oscillometry (HDO), and Doppler); invasive (arterial cannula placement in different locations and species).
Mucous Membrane Color: Reflects tissue perfusion. Color ranges from pink → pale/white →yellow → cherry red → gray/purple/blue → chocolate brown; each color correlates to a specific condition.

Antimicrobial Use:

Antimicrobial classes, key characteristics, and examples: (Beta-lactams: penicillins, cephalosporins, natural and semi-synthetic penicillins; tetracyclines: bacteriostatic, time-dependent, broad spectrum, use with caution in young animals, doxycycline, oxytetracycline, chlortetracycline, etc).
Antimicrobial resistance, empirical prescribing, categories, and other considerations: Steps to follow during empirical prescribing and responsible use (BVA 7-point plan).
Gram-positive/Gram-negative bacteria: clinical significance, mechanisms of action of antibacterials (cell wall, nucleic acid, and protein synthesis inhibition).
EMA categories for appropriate antibiotic use (Category A - Avoid, Category B - Restrict, and Category C - Caution, Category D - Prudence).
Further resources are required to understand this in depth.

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Description

Test your knowledge on essential aspects of veterinary radiography and anaesthesia. This quiz covers indications for fluid therapy, interpreting radiographic images, and key principles of monitoring during anaesthesia. Enhance your understanding of these critical areas in veterinary medicine.