Urbanization in America: The 19th Century

Urbanization in America: The 19th Century

• This section focuses on the economic, technological, and demographic trends that powered urbanization in the United States.
• It also looks into the effects of urbanization regarding population density, concentration, and related issues such as housing conditions and poverty.

Growth Statistics (19th Century)

• In 1800, only 6% of the U.S. population, around 300,000 out of 5 million, resided in urban areas.
• By 1900, 40% of the U.S. population, roughly 30 million of 75 million, lived in urban areas, with urban population growth at 5% annually.
• The rate of urban growth significantly exceeded the overall population growth rate of 2.4% annually.
• New York City's population expanded from under 100,000 in 1800 to over 3 million by 1900.

Factors Driving Urban Growth (19th Century)

• Population growth was fueled by both natural increases and immigration, especially after the 1840s, aided by transatlantic steamship services.
• The Industrial Revolution featured increased productivity through agricultural machinery, which freed up labor for cities.
• Factory production concentrated labor forces in urban areas, creating a need for support services and mass housing.
• Transportation technology like railroads and steamboats facilitated the reach of cities into hinterlands for resources and markets.
• Rapid settlement and industrialization required new urban centers to efficiently organize and distribute goods.
• Cities like Chicago became crucial hubs for the developing industrial economy.

Urban Concentration and Density (19th Century)

• High population density was typical, and in 1900 Manhattan’s population density reached 100,000 residents per square mile.
• Inexpensive water transportation and railroads centered activity in central locations like docks and rail terminals.
• Housing conditions included tenements and railroad flats, which often consisted of 5-7 stories, poorly ventilated apartments, and lacked sanitary facilities.

Key Features of 19th-Century Urbanization

• Economic activity concentrated around railroads and ports forming high density areas.
• Manufacturing relied on multistory buildings to maximize land use.
• Poor living standards were common, with worker housing often overcrowded.

Implications of 19th-Century Urbanization

• Urban growth created economic development opportunities, with challenges such as overcrowding, sanitation problems, and environmental degradation.
• Modern urban planning foundation began with the concentration of population and industry in central areas that shaped the structure of cities.

The Constitutional Framework

• The U.S. Constitution doesn't allocate the powers division regarding state and local governments.
• Local governments get their authority of power from the state.
• Dillon’s Rule (1868) says that the local government has power by the state.
• Home rule laws allowed municipalities more authority unless the state specifically prohibits, and all government power comes from the state.

Powers and Limitations of Government

• Local governments' authority is delegated by states through charters, state-enabling acts, and state constitutions, also following constitutional rights.
• Conflicts over governmental authority or individual rights are managed by courts as ultimate arbiters.
• Local planning is constrained by what the courts allow and influenced by legal precedents.
• Urban planning took place prior to legal frameworks.
• A private entity created the Chicago plan and funded it through the city's taxation and bonds.
• Eminent domain was used to get necessary property for the Chicago plan.

Eminent Domain, Definition and Legal Framework

• Eminent domain is the government's right to seize private assets for public benefit, provided fair compensation is given.
• The Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments of the United States Constitution cover "just compensation" and "due process" when the government takes property.

Eminent Domain: Process and Significance

• Courts determine fair value if the government and property owner disagree on compensation.
• Kelo v. New London (2005) expanded eminent domain for private-to-private transfers for economic development, causing a public stir and was subsequently restricted in many states.

Public Control Over Private Property and Regulatory Takings

• Governments use zoning to regulate land use. and while regulatory takings may reduce property value, compensation is not required.
• Zoning differs from eminent domain and doesn't require compensation.

Key Legal Cases: Police Power and Zoning

• Mugler v. Kansas (1887) upheld laws closing breweries without recompense. which distinguished between police power and using eminent domain.
• Hadacheck v. Sebastian (1915) supported zoning laws against industrial operations in residential areas.

Zoning and Land-Use Regulations

• Zoning (1916 NYC Ordinance) established use districts and building restrictions and setbacks for light and air and was created by Edward M. Bassett, the "father of zoning".
• Euclid v. Ambler (1926): The U.S. Supreme Court legitimized dividing land into designated areas.

The Rights of Nonresidents

• Challenges to zoning can come about from libertarians and property owners or critics protecting their property.
• Non-owners now can challenge zoning laws with legitimate stakes in zoning.

State-Level Influence on Planning

• Municipalities must to abide by the state laws but can use unique plans, a policy influenced by Virginia’s planning laws that require all cities, towns, and counties to create comprehensive plans with zoning and renewal ideas.

The Federal Role in Planning

• The Federal Government impacts local decisions by setting mandates, such as the Clean Air Act, and can exert influence with their money grants.
• Grants from the government reached $495 billion in 2008, mostly focusing on infrastructure projects.

Key Takeaways

• Dillon’s Rule emphasizes the state governments have control over the local.
• Eminent domain controversies are there with the taking of private property for public use and it needs compensation
• While opponents find it restrictive zoning balances the use of land and property rights.

Planning and Politics

• Planning processes is the facilitators between the community and the decision makers with input that’s needed from the stakeholders.
• A good portion of planners tend to be more conservative working to encourage diversity when it comes to urbanization.

Comprehensive Plans

• The goal of comprehensive planning is to establish accessible sanitation processes, ensure security measures, and create stable circulation methods.

The Comprehensive Planning Process, Steps 1–3

• These plans involve research such as environment, economic, and population factors to implement surveys between public sectors.
• By setting goals leaders can consider public concerns, priorities, and sustainability measures.
• Zoning regulations are impacted with this plan for developing transit expansions, as well as incentives for private investments.

Comprehensive Plans, Effectiveness and Key Takeaways

• A negative economic impact alongside a lack of funding can hinder any of the local or federal programs.
• The effectiveness of a plan correlates with governmental support alongside environmental concerns.
• Development is managed with realistic protection balances.

Introducing Land-Use Planning Tools

• The primary tools were use to help municipalities, by using the comprehensive plans to make the public sector and managing regulations.
• The local government uses these policies to control finances by improving growth management.

Capital and Effects on Land-Use

• Capital is then spent on highway systems alongside schooling, parks, and recreational areas.
• Development of the land depends on outside infrastructure, investment, and a transit system.

Financing Public Capital Expenditures

• Long term and short-term funding in the public sectors comes from bonds, taxes, foundations, and other private partnerships.
• By setting a definition of zoning and it purposes to regulate for environmental protection, safety and public sanitation.

Type of Zoning

• The separation of land has categories such as residential, commercial, industrial, a style of zoning that can spur urban sprawl and lack of diversity.
• By focusing on the urban design of aesthetics, walkable spaces can become more diverse for the community.

Zoning Challenges

• An example of a challenge is exclusionary zoning is preventing lower income families to maintain certain wealth as it reduces the land value.
• There are disputes over the level of control that they receive from upper management and how it affects the residents.

Making Zoning More Flexible

• Developers get rewards and leniencies for taking on community projects or for building high density units to balance for public benefit.
• Transferring helps conservation and building to balance between the two, and zoning uses a clustered strategy.

Key Takeaways

• An effect of all these regulations is to ensure community infrastructure to oversee future construction.
• A general trend is to promote energy and resources efficiently by creating codes and resilience funds.
• This is used to control urban sprawl strategies with the assistance of conservation, community, and the limitations of growth in the community.

Forces Beyond Control

• With the lack of planning and preparation, the land use can be affected by local policies.

Urban Design, definition and concepts

• Urban design intersects architecture & focuses on spatial relationships and layouts over aesthetics.
• It links city organizations with the practical life.

Urban Designers vs. Planners

• Planners emphasize external influences with plans for city development, while designers work within it.
• The end goal is to produce a comprehensive plan that assesses effectiveness and feasibility.

Concepts in Designs

• Whyte focused on food options and walking space.
• Calthorpe advocated for easier access between commutes.

Urban Design Principles - Key Concepts

• It’s best to avoid conflict between pedestrian and other transportation methods when designing
• Land spaces should offer mixed use for residential, commercial, and greenery.