Urbanization of America

The Urbanization of America

• This details the history and forces driving urbanization in the United States, focusing on economic, technological, and demographic trends.
• Examines effects of urbanization on population concentration and density.
• Discusses challenges like poverty and housing conditions.
• Provides insights into "boomburgs," i.e., rapidly growing suburban cities.

Growth Statistics in 19th Century

• Around 6% of the U.S. population, i.e., ~300,000 out of 5 million lived in urban areas in 1800.
• Around 40% of the U.S. population, i.e., ~30 million out of 75 million resided in cities by 1900.
• Urban populations grew at approximately 5% per year, which exceeded overall population growth rate (2.4%).
• New York City's population went from < 100,000 in 1800 to > 3 million by 1900.

Forces Driving Urban Growth

• High rates of natural population increase.
• Increased immigration, especially after the 1840s, supported by transatlantic steamship services.
• Industrial Revolution led to rise in agricultural machinery, increased productivity, and freed labor.
• Factory production focused labor in cities, creating housing and administrative needs
• Department stores centralized labor and commercial activity.
• Railroads and steamboats expanded cities' reach into hinterlands for resources and markets.
• Advancements in transportation allowed cities to be larger and serve as economic focal points.
• Rapid Settlement and Industrialization required urban centers to organize and distribute increasing products efficiently.
• Key urban centers such as Chicago became industrial economy hubs.

Urban Concentration and Density

• Manhattan reached 100,000 people per square mile within 1900
• Inexpensive water transport and railroads brought activity to docks and rail terminals.
• High land value leads to dense, multistory buildings for industry, commerce, and residences.
• Worker lodgings included tenements with poorly ventilated apartments.
• Sanitation was poor due to shared outhouses and wells, which led to unhealthy living conditions.

Key Features of 19th-Century Urbanization

• Economic activities clustered around railroads and ports, thus making areas with extreme population density.
• Manufacturing and commercial activities used multistory buildings to fully utilize expensive land.
• Housing was overcrowded, poorly lit, and unsanitary, which resulted in public health crises.

Implications of 19th Century Urbanization

• Urban growth provides economic opportunities.
• It also results in overcrowding, sanitation issues, and degradation of the environmental situation.
• Concentration of industries and populations affected the structure of cities and it formed the basis for modern urban planning.

Legal Basis of Planning: Overview

• Planning is a governmental activity involving public powers and funds.
• Legal framework and limitations shape state and local planning efforts.

Constitutional Framework in Planning

• The U.S. Constitution does not define how powers should be divided between state and local governments.
• Local governments derive power from state governments.
• Dillon’s Rule (1868) specifies limited power of local governments to those explicitly granted by the state.
• Many states have passed home rule laws, which grants municipalities more authority unless prohibited by law.
• Local government power is sourced at the state level regardless of either Dillon's Rule or Home Rule.

Powers and Limitations of Government

• States grant authority to local governments using charters, state-enabling acts, and state constitutions.
• Obligations are imposed to local government and are also bound by constitutional authority.
• Courts resolve the disputes when disagreements arise over governmental authority or individual rights.
• Courts impact, constrain local planning with legal precedence.
• Early urban planning occurred before specific legal frameworks existed, as seen with the Chicago plan of 1909.
• The private entity created the Chicago plan and used taxation and bonds to raise funds, as well as eminent domain to acquire property.

Eminent Domain

• The government may take private property for public benefit with fair compensation.
• The Fifth Amendment needs "just compensation" for taken property.
• The Fourteenth Amendment ensures "due process" in property takings.
• Government and property owner disagree about compensation, courts decide the fair value.
• Kelo v. New London (2005) broadened eminent domain for economic development transferred between private entities that cause public protest.
• Many states restricted eminent domain to benefit individual property rights by preventing private development.

Public Control Over Private Property

• Govern land use by zoning versus property acquisition.
• Regulatory takings involve regulations reducing value without requiring compensation.
• Zoning does not necessitate compensation unless deemed an unfair "taking" by courts.
• Mugler v. Kansas (1887) supported law that was closing brewery without compensation, which separates policing power and the eminent domain.
• Hadacheck v. Sebastian (1915) upheld zoning laws that are preventing industrial operations in residential locations.

Zoning and Land Use Regulations

• Zoning in 1916, New York City, enabled different use districts inclusive of residential, commercial, and mixed.
• Zoning introduced building height restrictions which can control congestion and sunlight.
• Setbacks increase light and air quality, were created by Edward M. Bassett, who is the "father of zoning."
• Euclidean zoning which divides land into designated districts was upheld in Euclid v. Ambler (1926)
• It confirms zoning as an exercise of police power not requiring compensation.
• Libertarian and conservative critics say that zoning violates property rights.
• Ongoing legal battles which define zoning limits

Rights of Nonresidents

• Zoning laws could be challenged by traditionally property owners
• Increasingly courts permit nonresidents to challenge zoning once they can demonstrate a legitimate stake within the outcome.

State-Level Enabling Acts

• State governments define municipal ability to enact planning laws
• Virginia requires every city, town, county, town, to establish a planning commission
• Virginia requires local governments to use comprehensive plans with strategy, land use, and infrastructure.

Federal Role in Planning

• The Clean Air Act is an example of a direct legal mandate.
• Federal grants and financial incentives come with conditions, which affects local planning.
• Key statistic: $495 billion in federal grants to state/local governments during 2008.
• Federal funds support the infrastructure, housing, and environmental planning.
• The federal government's stronger revenue sources, i.e., income taxes are an argument for use of intervention by the federal government.
• Local governments compete to have more residents and businesses which can limit taxing power

Summary of Key Takeaways

• Local governing power comes from states, for example, Dillon’s Rule versus Home Rule.
• Courts balance the balance between government control and individual property.
• Eminent Domain that is Controversial once used for private development such as the Kelo Case.
• Zoning controls land use without fair compensation and Euclid v. Ambler (1926) legitimized zoning.
• States must define municipal planning powers as well as duties.
• Some states require that comprehensive planning and federal influence imposes regulations - for example, environmental laws and provides funding, which shapes local priorities.

Planning and Politics

• Planning choices are visible in our communities.
• Planning decisions impact taxpayers.
• Planners are not inherently political.
• It is hard to fully separate politics from municipal work.
• Planners are now seen as facilitators of the planning process incorporating stakeholder input.

Planning Styles

• Planners serve the public using political expertise.
• Acknowledging the inseparability of planning from politics is a way of building consensus to accommodate diverse interests.
• Entrepreneurs evolve from urban renewal and economic development initiatives.
• Advocates champion interests such as business, environment, or transportation planning as an expression of advocacy.
• Advocacy of drastic transformational change is beneficial.

Urban Planners as Social Planners

• Social planning rose to prominence in the 1960s/70s due to the civil rights movement.
• Planners realized the effect their decisions had.

Private/Gated Communities

• Paying members of community associations needed residence in these communities
• They are seen as another form of housing discrimination

Homelessness

• More were homeless around 80s/90s.
• More were homeless because of the recession in 2008
• A part of them could impact efforts to address homelessness by involvement of urban planners in housing policies

Other Social Sides

• Smaller communities exist among minority and lower income brackets.
• A need exists for women to incorporate into the dominated male industry.
• Accommodation and life expectancy increases.

Comprehensive Plan and Key Points

• Guarantees sanitation coverage and fresh water
• Manages aspects such as floodzones, infrastructure and sidewalk coverage
• City Circulation & Infra is essential for various necessities to run smoothly such as essential transpiration, schools, or emergency services,
• Aims for long-term economic support
• Since the 1960s there were some economic enhancements within cities by environmental awareness efforts
• Considers different categories of diverse ethnic, religious community

Comprehensive Planning and 5-Step Process

• Involves (20-30) years of research as well as many outside city development strategy and population forecast
• Gathering community desires, but there may arise obstacles because of knowledge imbalances, but try to combine town values as mutual common ground Goals needs to be limited and clear.
• Capital allocation/taxation is key
• Requires using land regulations so that local infrastructure is taken care of.
• Needs to provide a maintenance standard as well as update the plan every so often so it still becomes a part of the new community life.

Tools of Land Use Planning

• Capital investments by public support public and private life
• Long term alignment from all directions

Types of Bonds

• General bonds that are backed by the credit of the issuing municipality.
• Revenue bonds that are backed by revenue generated from specific projects/tolls

Legal Controls of Land Use

• Authorities govern all stages of land development
• There must be clear rules and tools for people to follow

Tools

• Zoning must be structured clearly through site layout/building/zoning regulations
• "Cluster Zoning" is favored approach that preserves open space
• Outcome based zone development is not very commonly applied, while detail is procedure to be used for development
• Approaches such reviews, architectural evolutions, historic/site review
• Zoning approach focuses on the physical form and design of the built environment rather than land use.
• Encourages a aesthetic and smooth and friendly form. The goal is development offers function/identity toward community

The Comprehensive Plan

• Future building is guided with key steps by using that strategy plan

Comprehensive Planning

• Used for economic infrastructure and so forth
• Important to take into account community and outside groups

Health and Public Safety

There must be some rules/laws to prevent hazards for human life

• Regulations for clean water and a solid safety system
• Preventing all development around risky hazards

Provides systems with quality infrastructure

• Provides the ability to go to libraries and other community buildings
• Balances the needs and services
• Improves all needs of public like roads, gas, water, or public space

Economic Development

There must be new encouragement to keep industries around business and community

• Attract business to keep improvements in communities
• Keep businesses and keep their growth and harmony with development

There must be certain guidelines to keep a healthy ecosystem

• Helps prevent pollution and overdevelopment
• Guidelines need to keep energy running good so there isn't pollution

Must fix all economic situations throughout certain ethnic communities

• Prevent all discrimination or displace toward low income brackets There must be a sense to let communities thrive.

Planning Process

• A series of steps of all around process community

Needs to involve the communities and all social standings

• Has surveys for public opinion and meetings
• Political power balances the communities

Plans of Land and Usage

• Helps decide what's the best usage for each community such residential, commercial, or industrial
• Transportation for growth, transit improves, and bike lanes
• Funding over all helps support
• Environment factors and water must stay clean otherwise new code and new green building standard will occur

Needs to have control every 5-10 years

• Changes and unexpected things could lead to unexpected issues that would need fixed
• Review needs

Effective Comprehensive Plans

• The more the people work on it, the better
• Strong leaders helps the movement toward goals
• The ability is adapt in social economic situations

These strategies listed need to be able to work and follow zoning regulations, need strong leadership and need to be economic in terms of stability.

Must have zoning that has ability to thrive because it is the center of control

• Need to balance funding and laws that work
• Laws are important but the right laws

In summary: urban laws must be able to progress and thrive because they are essential for progress and growth must have community support throughout the process.

Land-Use Planning Tools

• Municipalities can implement comprehensive plans.
• The 2 primary tools used in land-use planning: Public Capital Investment and Land-Use Controls.
• These tools help control urban growth, protect environmental resources, and manage economic development.

Public Capital Investment: Government

• Infrastructure spending such as on roads, highways, water, sewer systems, schools, universities, airports, public transit, parks and recreational locations.
• These projects shape urban growth as some of those areas gain attractiveness for growth

Infrastructure Affects on Land

• Well connected areas see more value with development.
• Builders seek out locations with existing infrastructure.
• Suburban expansion is connected to a highway expansion
• Stations can encourage high density living
• Public park can increase business around

Budgets

• Operating Budget that covers day-to-day expenses like Salaries
• Maintenance budget that helps maintain equipment over a long period of time, for example, roads/buildings

Governments issue bonds to raise money, which is repaid with interest.

• Grants - State and federal funding for projects.

• Taxes & Fees – Property taxes, sales taxes; impacts those developers who work with the state, as Private sector contributes to that growth of revenue

Laws and Regulations for Land-Use controls

Must know what the definition to these regulations

• Regulations - for the use, density, type of what a city or business will contain.
• Prevents any land, that is incompatible to use with other land with a certain sector of location
• Helps manage form of an environment while promoting better safety

Levels of Zoning.

• Splits up different communities from the overall demographic: a Resident or a light industrial community.
• Critics is the strict laws can cause poor communities throughout city
• Must be some type of management

Form design needs to be able to provide a friendly experience, while providing the culture and beauty. It provides guidelines of what a building is and encourage walking in an eco friendly area of the community .

Challenges to Zoning

• Laws:*
• Hard laws reduces land value with a negative perception throughout investors
• A lot of communities are creating a new standard.

Bonus should be given when improving the infrastructure. If developers builds lower costing unit they are given incentives.

Can sell their development rights in developing/growth zone which helps improve economic diversity.

Allows unique types of zoning as long it doesn't stray away from the main focus.

Smaller buildings which create less pollution/building clusters together, and which helps with zoning.

What Is a Subdivision?

Definition: Rules that governs land for development. Purpose?

• Provide great quality.
• Prevents poorly planned areas.

Building Codes

• Keeps the structure intact, and limits fire
• Regulate all electronic issues throughout cities like those materials and safety
• Building codes that improve better sustainability with less radiation
• Make sure all codes are able to follow

Pollution

With water/nature being conserved

• Help with better control and structure- improve with high efficiency Reduce carbon. Federal needs to set regulation to provide a better community and improve climate conditions.

Community Plans

• Improves public travel
• Gives a plan to control waste which is key
• Protects land.

Must have strong planning to make decisions correctly.