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Questions and Answers

What is the result of a reaction between an amino acid with an -R group originally on the halide and NH2-NH2?

Formation of a disulfide bond

Formation of a peptide bond

An amino acid with the -R group on the NH2-NH2 (correct)

Formation of a sulfur linkage

What is the primary structure of a protein?

The electrostatic side chain - side chain interactions

The sequence of amino acids (correct)

The repetitive motifs formed by backbone interactions

The 3D structure of a protein

What is the pH at which a molecule is neutral?

The pKa of the molecule

The isoelectric point of the molecule (correct)

The pH of the solution

The pI of the molecule

What is the function of a hydropathy plot?

To measure the number of hydrophobic regions in a multidomain protein Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of the interaction between the NH and C=O groups in a protein?

The formation of hydrogen bonds Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of a solvation layer in a protein?

To push nonpolar amino acids towards the inside of the protein Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of an α helix in a protein?

It is right-handed, with the R groups sticking outward Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of the electrostatic interactions between side chains in a protein?

The stabilization of the 3D structure of the protein Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of histones in eukaryotic chromosome organization?

To compactly pack and wind chromosomal DNA Signup and view all the answers

What type of DNA sequence contains no genes and has a very high mutation rate?

Highly repetitive DNA Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of DNA gyrase (DNA topoisomerase II) during replication?

To introduce negative supercoils Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between single copy DNA and repetitive DNA?

Single copy DNA contains genes, while repetitive DNA does not Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of ubiquitination in post-translational modifications?

Inactivation of protein function by tagging for proteasome degradation Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of euchromatin?

Structured as loose beads on a string, representing nucleosomes Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of post-translational modifications to proteins?

To regulate protein function through activation or inactivation Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of supercoiling during DNA replication?

Reduced risk of strand breakage Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of RNAse enzyme in the process of creating a cDNA library?

To remove mRNA from the hybridized DNA-RNA molecule Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of generating a hairpin loop at the 3' end of the single-stranded cDNA?

To provide a site for DNA polymerase to initiate strand synthesis Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of S1 nuclease in the conversion of single-stranded cDNA into double-stranded DNA?

To open the hairpin loop at the 3' end of the cDNA Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of using antibiotic selection in gene cloning?

To select for bacteria that have successfully taken up the plasmid Signup and view all the answers

In the process of gene cloning, what is the role of hybridization?

To allow the base pairing of sticky ends between the gene and the plasmid Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of DNA polymerase in the process of creating a cDNA library?

To synthesize a complementary strand of DNA Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the annealing step in PCR?

To allow the primers to anneal to the DNA template Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of using restriction endonucleases in gene cloning?

To create sticky ends for ligation into the plasmid Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of exposing the nitrocellulose paper to a 32P radiolabeled DNA probe?

To identify the strand of DNA of interest Signup and view all the answers

What is the modification made to the nucleotides in the Sanger sequencing method?

Removing the OH group on the 3’ carbon Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the NaOH solution in the Sanger sequencing method?

To denature the DNA strand of interest Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the radiolabeled DNA primer in the Sanger sequencing method?

To provide a template for DNA replication Signup and view all the answers

Why is a small quantity of a single ddNTP added to each solution in the Sanger sequencing method?

To control the termination of replication Signup and view all the answers

How is the sequence of nucleotides determined in the Sanger sequencing method?

By reading the gel from bottom-to-top Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between Southern blotting and Northern blotting?

The type of molecule used (DNA vs. RNA) Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of autoradiography in the Southern blotting process?

To visualize the radiolabeled strands Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the 'normal' allele or phenotype for an organism?

Wild-type Signup and view all the answers

In a situation where both alleles are expressed in the heterozygous, what is the correct term?

Co-dominance Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process of two complementary, single-stranded DNA or RNA combining together, producing a double-stranded molecule through base pairing?

Hybridization Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of meiosis in terms of the number of chromosomes in each cell?

n (haploid) Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the frequency that a genotype will result in a phenotype?

Penetrance Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the degree to which a penetrant gene is expressed?

Expressivity Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the sum of all genes/alleles in a population at a given time?

Gene Pool Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process of genetic recombination, which introduces genetic variability?

Genetic Recombination Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the flow of genes from one species to another through hybrid offspring?

Leakage Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of meiosis in terms of genetic variability?

It increases genetic variability Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Peptides and Proteins

Sulfur linkage: cysteine has a thiol group, and two cysteines can form a disulfide bond, known as cystine
Peptide linkage: a peptide bond is an amide bond formed by the amine group attacking the carbonyl carbon
Hydrolysis: peptide bonds are difficult to hydrolyze and require a strong base or a biological enzyme

Protein Structure

Primary structure: the sequence of amino acids in a protein, read from N-terminus to C-terminus
Secondary structure: repetitive motifs formed by backbone interactions, including α helices and β pleated sheets
Tertiary structure: the 3D structure of a protein, caused by electrostatic side chain interactions
Isoelectric point: the pH at which a molecule is neutral, influenced by the number of acidic or basic amino acids

Protein Modification

Post-translational modifications: the addition of groups to a protein through covalent bonds or cleavage
Examples: phosphorylation, glycosylation, and ubiquitination (inactivation by tagging the protein for proteasome degradation)

Chromosome Organization

Histones: responsible for compact packing and winding of chromosomal DNA
Non-histone chromosomal proteins: involved in roles such as regulatory and enzymatic
Single copy DNA: does not repeat and holds most of an organism's important genetic information
Repetitive DNA: repeats and may contain genes that are transcribed and translated
Highly repetitive DNA: contains no genes and has a high mutation rate

Supercoiling and DNA Structure

Supercoiling: the wrapping of DNA on itself to alleviate torsional stress and reduce the risk of strand breakage
Heterochromatin: structured as loose beads on a string
Euchromatin: contains most of an organism's genetic information and is transcribed and translated

DNA Manipulation and Analysis

Hybridization: the process of annealing DNA strands with each other
Southern blotting: a technique used to identify specific DNA sequences
Gene cloning: the process of creating multiple copies of a gene
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR): a technique used to amplify specific DNA sequences
DNA sequencing (Sanger): a method used to determine the sequence of nucleotides in a strand of DNA

Gene Expression and Analysis

Northern blotting: a technique used to analyze gene expression in RNA
Gene expression: the process by which the information encoded in a gene is converted into a functional product
Analyzing gene expression: techniques used to study gene expression, including Northern blotting and PCR

Genetics and Inheritance

Wild-type: the normal allele or phenotype for an organism
Recessiveness: the weak allele, only expressed if both copies are present
Complete dominance: the normal way of assigning alleles
Co-dominance: when the heterozygous conveys both traits
Incomplete dominance: when the heterozygous conveys a mixture of the two alleles
Leakage: gene flow from one species to another through hybrid offspring
Penetrance: the frequency that a genotype will result in a phenotype
Expressivity: the degree to which a penetrant gene is expressed

Meiosis and Genetic Variability

Meiosis: the process of creating haploid sex cells through genetic division
Genetic recombination: the product of independent assortment and crossing over, introducing genetic variability
Gene pool: the sum of all genes/alleles in a population at a given time

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