Understanding Memory: Sensory, Short-Term, and Long-Term

• Memory is the brain's storage system, crucial for remembering information and skills.
• It is composed of sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.

Sensory Memory

• Sensory memory holds fleeting sensory information for a few seconds.
• It enables a smooth perception of the world.

Iconic Memory

• Iconic memory briefly retains visual information.

Echoic Memory

• Echoic memory briefly retains auditory information.

Short-Term Memory

• Short-term memory functions like a sticky note, holding a limited amount of information for about 20 seconds.
• It can hold approximately 4 items at a time.

Chunking

• Using chunking increases short-term memory capacity by grouping information.

Long-Term Memory

• Long-term memory stores important memories for extended periods.
• Encoding is essential for transferring memories from short-term to long-term storage.

Acoustic Encoding

• Acoustic encoding uses sound, rhymes, and songs to aid memory.

Visual Encoding

• Visual encoding uses images to aid memory.

Semantic Encoding

• Semantic encoding, which focuses on meaning, is the best approach for long-term retention.

Recalling Memories

• The brain recalls memories through recognition and recall.
• Recognition involves identifying familiar information, as in multiple-choice tests.
• Recall involves retrieving information from memory, similar to fill-in-the-blank tests.

Memory Tricks

• Retrieval cues are hints aiding in memory retrieval.

Context-Dependent Memory

• Context-dependent memory recalls information better in the environment where it was learned.

State-Dependent Memory

• State-dependent memory recalls information better when in the same emotional state as when it was learned.

Flashbulb Memories

• Flashbulb memories are vivid recollections of significant events, though not always accurate

Reasons for Forgetting

• Forgetting occurs when memories are lost, confused, or blocked

Transcience

• Transience is the fading of unused memories over time.

Absentmindedness

• Absentmindedness results from a failure to pay attention during encoding.

Blocking

• Blocking happens when a memory is inaccessible.

Misattribution

• Misattribution occurs when details of a memory are incorrectly recalled attributing a memory to the wrong context.

Suggestibility

• Suggestibility is when external suggestions alter memory.

Bias

• Bias occurs when current feelings change memories over time.

Persistence

• Persistence involves the unwanted repetition of memories.

Encoding Failure

• Encoding failure is when information never makes it into memory.

Interference

• Interference occurs when memories compete with each other.

Proactive Interference

• Proactive interference happens when old memories disrupt the learning of new information.

Retroactive Interference

• Retroactive interference happens when new memories disrupt the recall of old information

Working Memory

• Working memory is the brain's toolbox for thinking and problem-solving.

Baddeley's Model of Working Memory

• Baddeley's Model of Working Memory includes the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, episodic buffer, and central executive.

Phonological Loop

• The phonological loop remembers words by sound through repetition.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

• The visuospatial sketchpad remembers visual and spatial information.

Episodic Buffer

• The episodic buffer connects various types of memory.

Central Executive

• The central executive manages the other components of working memory.

Forms of Long-Term Memory

• Long-term memory is divided into explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative) memory.

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

• Explicit memory encompasses conscious recall of facts and experiences.

Episodic Memory

• Episodic memory is for personal experiences and events.

Semantic Memory

• Semantic memory is for facts and general knowledge.

Implicit (Non-Declarative) Memory

• Implicit memory involves skills and habits that do not require conscious recall.

Procedural Memory

• Procedural memory is for skills and actions.

Repetition Priming

• Repetition priming enhances memory through repeated exposure.

How to Improve Memory

• Improving memory can be achieved through chunking, mnemonics, and effective study habits.
• Avoid distractions while studying
• Test yourself instead of rereading
• Avoid studying under the influence

Cool Science Facts

• Eyewitness testimonies can be unreliable due to memory distortions.
• The hippocampus is critical for forming long-term memories.
• The serial position effect refers to better recall of the first and last items in a list.
• Memory is reconstructive, filling in gaps and sometimes creating false details

Cognition Defined

• Cognition encompasses mental activities like problem-solving, learning, decision-making, and imagination.

Problem-Solving Strategies

• The key problem-solving strategies are trial and error, algorithms, heuristics, and insight.

Trial and Error

• Trial and error involves testing various solutions until one works.

Algorithms

• Algorithms are step-by-step procedures that guarantee a correct solution.

Heuristics

• Heuristics are mental shortcuts used for quick decisions.

Insight

• Insight is a sudden realization of a solution.

Cognitive Heuristics

• Cognitive heuristics are thinking shortcuts that can sometimes lead to errors

Representativeness Heuristic

• The representativeness heuristic assesses similarity to typical cases.

Availability Heuristic

• The availability heuristic estimates likelihood based on how easily examples come to mind.

Recognition Heuristic

• The recognition heuristic favors familiar options.

Affect Heuristic

• The affect heuristic makes decisions based on emotions.

Framing Effect

• The framing effect alters decisions based on how information is presented.

Fixation

• Fixation is the inability to see a problem from a new perspective.

Kahneman’s Dual Systems

• Daniel Kahneman's theory describes two systems of thinking: System 1 (fast) and System 2 (slow).

System 1

• System 1 operates quickly and automatically.

System 2

• System 2 requires effort and focus.

Intelligence Defined

• Intelligence is the ability to learn and solve problems.

Types of Intelligence

• Key types of intelligence include general, specific, fluid, crystallized, analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.

"g" (General Intelligence)

• "g" refers to general cognitive ability.

"s" (Specific Intelligence)

• "s" refers to specific skills.

Fluid Intelligence

• Fluid intelligence is the capacity to solve new problems.

Crystallized Intelligence

• Crystallized intelligence is knowledge gained over time.

Analytical Intelligence

• Analytical intelligence is logical reasoning ability.

Creative Intelligence

• Creative intelligence is innovative thinking.

Practical Intelligence

• Practical intelligence is everyday problem-solving skill.

Measuring Intelligence

• Intelligence is measured using IQ tests, which assess mental age and provide a standardized score.

Mental Age

• Mental age indicates cognitive performance relative to age.

IQ score

• IQ score indicates problem-solving ability.
• IQ tests have limitations, including cultural biases.

The Flynn Effect

• The Flynn effect is the observed increase in IQ scores over generations.
• IQ scores correlate with academic performance but do not ensure overall success

Decision-Making Biases

• Decision-making biases can skew our choices.

Confirmation Bias

• Confirmation bias seeks information confirming existing beliefs.

Belief Persistence

• Belief persistence is the tendency to hold onto beliefs despite contradictory evidence.

Gambler's Fallacy

• The gambler's fallacy is the belief that past events affect future probabilities.

Boosting Creativity

• Creativity is enhanced by flexibility, diverse perspectives, and experimentation.

Influences on Intelligence

• Intelligence arises from a combination of genetics and environmental factors.

Genes (Nature)

• Genetic factors contribute to learning abilities.

Environment (Nurture)

• Environmental factors, like education and nutrition, also play a role.
• Environmental influences can modify gene expression.

Language Acquisition

• Language acquisition is a natural human ability.

Chomsky's Universal Grammar

• Chomsky’s theory suggests an innate capacity for language.
• Animals may learn limited communication, but not like human language.