Cognitive memory: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval

• Cognitive memory involves encoding, storage, and retrieval
• Encoding takes external stimuli and turns it into usable information
• Storage takes encoded information and keeps for later use
• Retrieval recovers and uses stored information

Memory storage

• Engram: is the idea of a place where memory is "stored"
• Cues are bits of information included during encoding and are needed for retrieval

Levels of Processing

• Structural processing focuses on visual components and occurs in the occipital lobe
• Phonemic processing focuses on the sounds and mostly occurs in the temporal lobe
• Semantic processing focuses on meaning and mostly uses the frontal lobe
• Organizational processing encodes with other information associating them.
  • Uses the frontal lobe
• Craik & Tulving (1972) studied how organizing 72 words structurally, phonemically, or semantically impacts memory
  • Semantic processing was more effective, especially when seen twice

Dual Track processing

• Effortful processing involves consciously trying to remember
• Automatic processing happens unconsciously

Mnemonic strategies

• Mnemonic strategies serve to improve memory
• Interpretation is based on personal understanding
• Encoding specificity principle states encoding stage choices will be the easiest cues
• Elaboration adds information to create more distinct retrieval cues
• Dual-Coding Theory recommends encoding information using two different modalities.
  • So that if one fails, the other assists
• Self-Referent Encoding connects information to oneself during encoding

Improving Encoding

• Motivation serves as a retrieval cue
• Pegwords create a strong visual combination of images and numbers
• Methods of Loci uses familiar locations and a charted path, placing items to remember along the way
• Chunking puts things together to remember
• Hierarchies process information top-down
• Spacing/Testing Effect spaces out information to help you remember better
  • Also testing yourself

Multi Store Model - Atkinson & Shiffrin

• Working memory describes how you're using information in short-term memory, suggested by Alan Baddeley

Memory Storage

• Maintenence rehearsal is meant to maintain the information in memory
• Elaborative rehearsal shifts memory to long-term storage

Types of memory

• Sensory memory is the easiest to forget
  • Sperling (1960) tested a block of letters and numbers
    • regardless of the row, participants could remember the first three letters
    • The duration is short, but the capacity is big
• Short Term: If able to focus attention, can increase duration
  • Duration is ~30 seconds
  • Miller 7+-2 estimates 5-9 pieces of information on average in short-term
• Long-Term Memory seems endless in capacity
  • Procedural memory: automatic processing of information
    • Positive Transfer-mastery of one procedure helps a second procedure
    • Negative Transfer - mastery of one procedure interferes with your ability to master another procedure
  • Declarative memory: consciously recalling information
    • Semantic: factual information
    • Episodic: personal memories
  • Autobiographical memory includes episodic and semantic about yourself
    • HSAM (highly superior autobiographic memory): able to remember almost everything
  • Prospective memory is remembering something to do
  • Retrospective memory is better for most memories in the past

Working Memory

• Visual-spatial Sketchpad is used for visual and spatial learning, like dances Phonological loop handles auditory or language-based information
• Central executive manages the parts and resources for proper function and direction
• Episodic buffer focuses on the temporal information
  • Children and elderly have impaired working memory systems in general
  • Advanced working memory leads to comprehension and intelligence

Consolidation

• Consolidation turns new or old memories into stronger long-term memories
  • Hippocampus seems to be vital here
  • REM/rapid eye movement sleep helps this
• Reconsolidation occurs when memories become unstable for updates when retrieved

Retrieving memory

• Implicit is opposite of explicit recall
  • Explicit: involves hippocampus and prefrontal cortex
  • Implicit: involves the cerebellum and the basal ganglia
• Retrieval cues such as places, emotional states and objects can trigger association
• Schemas of knowledge about objects or events are based on personal patterns, filling gaps in memory

Testing Memory

• Recall asks people to retrieve information without any cues
• Recognition requires to recognize previously learned information
  • Like a multiple choice exam
• Relearning measures time to relearn a task
  • The quicker they get back-up, the easier memory will come

Amnesia Types

• Retrograde Amnesia has trouble with old memories
• Anterograde Amnesia has trouble with new memories

Common Memory Issues

• Serial Positioning Effect states the list item affects recall
  • Primacy remembers the first thanks to repetition
  • Recency remembers the last, because they are held in short-term memory still

Forgetting

• Cryptoanmesia causes one to mistakenly plagarize Because you assume you created the information
• Processing error: mistakes noodle or poodle
• Tip-of-the-Tongue describes when someone knows they know something but can not access it

Failures of Retreivel

• Beneficial to forget bad embarrassing moments
• Inability to forget causes decision paralysis
• Ineffective Encoding causes the inability to encode
• Decay and Transience occurs as time passes
• Blocking is a failure of retrieval
• Misattribution assigns a memory to the wrong source
• Bias remembers what we agree with and dismiss what we don't

Learning

• Synaptic Pruning reduces the amount of neuronal connections as information is learned

Associative Learning

• Associative learning pairs stimuli
  • Classical Conditioning which is pioneered by Ivan Pavlov
  • Operational Conditioning:

The Mechanisms of Classical Conditioning

• Neutral Stimulus is any neutral item, object or being
• Unconditioned Stimulus naturally and reflexively causes a response
• Conditioned Stimuli repeatedly pairing an NS to a US
• Unconditioned Response is a natural reflexive response to the US
• Conditioned Response is a response to the conditioned stimuli

Key elements around Conditioning

• Acquisition describes how long it takes to pair a neutral and UCR
• Extinction is how long to forget the behavior again
• Spontaneous recovery describes sudden returns with no prior priming
• Generalization describes how the stimulu is similar to the conditioned stimulu
• Discrimination describes distinctions between conditioned stimuli.

The Little Albert Experiment

• US: loud noise
• CS: white rate
• CR: fear
• Generalization : scared of all furry things

Other elements of Classical Conditioning

• Taste Aversion is a powerful and lasting learned response

Car Accident Example

• Accident UCR = Fear
• Brakes = the fear

Mechanics of Operant Conditioning

• Positive reinforcement add something good
• Negative reinforcement take something bad
• Thorndike's Law of Effect will always repeat itself

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Stimulus : -Ratio rewards an amount of times -Interval rewards once an amount of time has passed

Partial, Variable, Fixed Rewards

• Partial Reinformanet only comes some amount of times
• Context Reinforcement occurs in settings
• Primary reinforcers are biological

Shaping

• Shaping is splitting of complex behavior you are trying to get to in small steps first
• Token economy works for good classroom practices

Similarities

• Acquisition
• Extinction
• Spontaneous
• Generalization
• Discrimination

Differences in Conditioning

• The Culture variety for rewards and punishment varies drastically between groups

Other Conditiong elements

• Conditioning unlearns something completely
• Evaluative tries to change how people feel -SOR : stimuli
• Instinctive Drift: the instinct of an organism gets in the way of doing something

Latent-Learning

• Latent-Learning of rewards
• Types of Learning-

Non-Associative Learning

• Habituation- learn to not mind stimulus
• Sensitization- becomes sensitivitity of harm

4 types of requisites

• Attention
• Retention
• Reproductions
• Motivations

Key Components of Intellitengence

• Cattell Horn Carroll of general, broad and narrow testing
• G factor, Spatial, Quaitative
• Intelligence & Problem Solving- Francis Galton
• Started with a person and test who intelligence

Theory

• Lewis Terman English
• David wechsler
• The Deviation

Cultural Bias

• Cultural Bias states a groups will skew

Crystallized Learning

• Crystallized Learning versus Fluid Learning