Type 2 Diabetes and Genetic Concepts
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary reason cited for the high maternal mortality rate during childbirth in women?

  • Underdeveloped medical technology
  • Increased size of newborn skulls
  • Obstetrical dilemma (correct)
  • Narrower pelvis from bipedalism

How did bipedalism affect the shape of the pelvis in females?

  • It caused the pelvis to become narrower. (correct)
  • It had no effect on the pelvis.
  • It made the pelvis more circular.
  • It made the pelvis wider for easier childbirth.

What is encephalization in the context of childbirth?

  • Development of larger pelvises in females
  • Reduction in brain size of newborns
  • Increase in brain size relative to body size (correct)
  • A decrease in maternal health during gestation

Why do human mothers generally seek assistance during childbirth unlike great apes?

<p>Human babies are born more undeveloped. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes species whose offspring are more helpless at birth?

<p>Altricial (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does stabilizing selection play in the evolution of the female pelvis?

<p>It maintains a balance between walking ability and brain size. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why has the evolution of a wider pelvis not been prioritized in females despite the challenges of childbirth?

<p>It would compromise their ability to walk. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What major problem arises during childbirth due to the obstetrical dilemma?

<p>Babies having larger heads (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does physical activity (PA) influence somatic repair in the body?

<p>By stimulating production of antioxidants (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the approximate reduction in relative risk of all-cause mortality for a sedentary person who engages in 150 minutes of moderate exercise per week?

<p>50% (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does 3 to 4 hours of moderate exercise per week have on the risk of breast cancer in women?

<p>Reduces the risk by 30-40% (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way does physical activity support the immune system?

<p>By aiding in the attack of mutant cells (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'spandrel' refer to in the context of adaptations?

<p>A byproduct of other adaptations and traits (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe the wear and tear on the body due to chronic stress?

<p>Allostatic load (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following symptoms is NOT commonly associated with Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)?

<p>Weight gain (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which dietary components have been linked to contributing to IBS symptoms?

<p>Short-chain carbohydrates (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor is NOT mentioned as influencing the composition of the microbiome?

<p>Personality traits (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the contemporary U.S microbiome differ from that of our evolutionary past?

<p>It is more likely to be in a state of dysbiosis. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do gut microbes play in human evolution?

<p>They promote energy storage. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which group of microbial organisms specifically resides in the human body?

<p>Microbiota (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What has been suggested as a potential cause of IBS?

<p>Stress (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT considered to shape variations in microbiomes?

<p>Socioeconomic status (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Energetics of Gestation and Growth Hypothesis (EGG Hypothesis) suggest regarding pregnancy?

<p>Pregnancy ends when the fetus's energy needs exceed the mother's ability to support them. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a component of innate immunity?

<p>T lymphocytes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement describes the nature of inflammation in the immune system?

<p>Inflammation is a non-specific, quick response. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining feature of adaptive immunity?

<p>It is characterized by specificity, diversity, and memory. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the hygiene hypothesis, which factor inhibits the immune system from learning about pathogenic responses?

<p>A decrease in interactions with parasites due to improved hygiene. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly defines an antigen?

<p>A substance that elicits a specific immune response. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do B lymphocytes contribute to adaptive immunity?

<p>They produce antibodies against specific antigens. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Innate immunity evolved before which other type of immunity?

<p>Adaptive immunity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of apoptosis in the context of cancer?

<p>To facilitate programmed cell death (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the risks associated with obesity and cancer is TRUE?

<p>Obesity is linked to a higher risk of breast, prostate, colon, and pancreatic cancer (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a clonal sweep indicate in the context of cancer evolution?

<p>A dominance of a specific subclone over neighboring cells (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What health benefit is linked to increased physical activity in middle-aged humans according to the active grandparent hypothesis?

<p>Improved overall health and extended lifespan (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hypothesis explains the co-evolution of factors such as extreme brain size and prolonged childhood in humans?

<p>Embodied capital hypothesis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does mitochondrial metabolism produce reactive oxygen species (ROS)?

<p>As a byproduct of metabolic processes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the mismatch hypothesis in relation to cancer?

<p>It highlights how modern lifestyles differ from ancestral patterns (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which cancer types are associated with long-term positive energy balance?

<p>Breast, prostate, colon, and pancreatic cancer (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary feature of Type 2 Diabetes?

<p>Cells fail to respond to insulin effectively (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the role of insulin in the body?

<p>Insulin regulates glucose levels by enabling glucose to enter muscle and liver cells (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Thrifty Genotype Hypothesis propose?

<p>Certain genes may predispose individuals to diabetes due to starvation ancestry (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one critique of the Thrifty Genotype Hypothesis?

<p>There is a lack of evidence for a selective sweep in populations (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of the Thrifty Phenotype Hypothesis?

<p>It asserts that nutrient scarcity in early life affects adult metabolism (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor is primarily influenced by the Respiratory Quotient (RQ)?

<p>The macronutrient being metabolized (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the founder effect describe in terms of genetic variation?

<p>Reduced genetic diversity due to a small group separating from a larger population (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the HPA axis primarily respond to stress?

<p>It manages the release of glucocorticoids like cortisol (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one proposed evolutionary hypothesis explaining the negative health effects of stress?

<p>Energy consumption for stress hinders other bodily functions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological response does the sympathetic nervous system primarily govern?

<p>Fight or flight responses (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor can lead to growth stunting in children?

<p>Undernutrition during gestation and infancy (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does cortisol have on the body during stress?

<p>Regulates various body systems under stress (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is associated with the critical period in child development?

<p>Development is highly sensitive to environmental changes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the Predictive Adaptive Response Hypothesis explain development?

<p>Children prepare their metabolism for adult environments based on early cues (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes leptin's function in the body?

<p>Leptin signals the brain about energy storage and satiety (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

What is insulin?

A hormone produced by the pancreas that regulates glucose metabolism by unlocking cells to store glucose for energy.

What causes type 2 diabetes?

Type 2 diabetes is caused by a dysfunction in cells not responding to insulin, leading to glucose buildup in the blood.

What is the 'thrifty genotype' hypothesis?

A hypothesis suggesting that individuals with a 'thrifty' genotype are better at storing fat during periods of famine, but are more susceptible to metabolic disorders when food is plentiful.

What is leptin?

A hormone produced by fat cells that signals the brain when you're full, helping regulate appetite and weight.

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What is genetic drift?

Random changes in gene frequencies over time in a population due to chance events.

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What is the founder effect?

A special case of genetic drift where a small group of individuals leaves a larger population, resulting in a reduced diversity of genes in the new population.

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What is the 'thrifty phenotype' hypothesis?

Undernutrition during pregnancy, infancy, and childhood can lead to lasting metabolic changes that increase the risk of metabolic disorders later in life.

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What is a height-for-age z-score (HAZ)?

A measure of the height of a child compared to the average height for their age group.

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What is the respiratory quotient (RQ)?

The ratio of carbon dioxide produced to oxygen consumed during metabolism, which indicates whether the body is burning fat, carbohydrates, or protein.

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What are critical periods or sensitive windows?

Periods early in life when an organism is especially susceptible to environmental influences, with long-lasting consequences.

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What is evolutionary constraint?

The idea that certain physiological traits may have evolved to enhance survival in periods of scarcity, but may be disadvantageous in environments with abundant resources.

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What is the immediate adaptive response hypothesis?

The notion that the thrifty phenotype is an adaptive response to a challenging environment, allowing for survival under nutrient scarcity, but with health consequences later in life.

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What is the predictive adaptive response hypothesis?

The hypothesis that the thrifty phenotype is a predictive adaptation to anticipated future conditions, where early life cues predict adult environments.

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What is stress?

The body's physiological response to stressful situations that threaten homeostasis.

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What are the characteristics of the acute stress response?

The rapid mobilization of energy from storage sites, increased breathing rate, heart rate, and blood pressure, and the inhibition of energy-expensive processes, all driven by the sympathetic nervous system.

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What is the autonomic nervous system?

The system that regulates unconscious bodily functions, including the 'fight or flight' response and the 'rest and digest' response.

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Chronic stress

A state where the body experiences prolonged stress responses due to continuous exposure to stressors, leading to negative health effects.

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Allostatic load

The cumulative wear and tear on the body caused by chronic activation of the stress response system. It reflects the body's struggle to adapt to persistent stressors.

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Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS)

A common gastrointestinal disorder characterized by abdominal pain, constipation, and diarrhea.

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Microbiota

A collective term for all the microorganisms that inhabit our body, including bacteria, viruses, and fungi.

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Microbiome

The entire collection of microbes, their genetic material, and their interactions with each other and their host.

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Taxa

A group of organisms that share a common ancestor, like a species, genus, or family.

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Dysbiosis

A state of imbalance in the composition and diversity of the microbiome, often caused by factors like antibiotics or diet.

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Evolutionary mismatch hypothesis

The hypothesis that our current microbiome is different from the microbiome our ancestors had due to different dietary and lifestyle factors.

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Evolutionary hypothesis of the gut microbiome

The idea that during human evolution, our gut microbiome played a crucial role in helping us extract energy from food, contributing to our ability to survive periods of famine.

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Why is childbirth so difficult?

The difficulty in childbirth experienced by humans compared to other primates, potentially linked to the evolutionary development of our larger brains and energy-intensive lifestyle.

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Obstetrical Dilemma

The challenge faced by women during childbirth where the narrow birth canal, a result of bipedalism, conflicts with the need for larger brains in offspring.

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Encephalization

The evolutionary process leading to an increase in the relative size of the brain compared to the body.

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Precocial Species

Species whose offspring are born with a higher level of maturity and independence.

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Altricial Species

Species whose offspring are born relatively immature and helpless.

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Stabilizing Selection

A type of natural selection where the average trait is favored, while extreme variations are selected against.

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Female Birth Canal Variation Study

A study that challenges the idea of a 'perfect' female pelvis for birth, highlighting the wide variation in size and shape.

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Human Childbirth

The process of giving birth, particularly in humans, requiring medical interventions to ensure the safety of both mother and child.

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Bipedalism

The evolution of upright walking in humans, leading to changes in the pelvis and birth canal.

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Energetics of Gestation and Growth (EGG) Hypothesis

The idea that pregnancy ends when the fetus's energy needs exceed the mother's ability to meet them, potentially due to the fetus growing too large.

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Innate Immunity

A part of the immune system that doesn't rely on prior exposure to a pathogen. It's the body's first line of defense.

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Inflammation

A rapid, non-specific response to harmful stimuli, like infection or injury. It involves redness, swelling, heat, and pain.

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Adaptive Immunity

A component of the immune system that learns and remembers specific pathogens. It develops over time.

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Antigen

A substance that triggers a specific immune response. Most pathogens have multiple antigens.

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Hygiene Hypothesis

The idea that our immune systems have adapted to live alongside parasites, and modern hygiene practices and antibiotics might be disrupting this balance.

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Killer T Cells

Specialized white blood cells that destroy infected cells or cancer cells.

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B Lymphocytes

Specialized white blood cells that produce antibodies to fight infections.

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Physical Activity's Impact on Body Repair

The stress of physical activity triggers the body to invest in processes like antioxidant production, inflammation reduction, and increased mitochondrial activity, which are essential for cellular repair and maintenance. This benefits the body even when it's not actively engaged in exercise.

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Dose-Dependent Relationship of PA

The relationship between physical activity and health outcomes is dose-dependent. As the amount of physical activity increases, the benefits, such as reduced risk of chronic diseases, become more significant.

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PA and Cancer Prevention

Physical activity can reduce the risk of breast and colon cancer by stimulating tumor suppressor genes and boosting the effectiveness of the immune system in targeting and destroying mutated cells.

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Spandrel Metaphor

A term used to describe traits that evolved as a byproduct of other adaptations, meaning their existence is not directly related to the main function of the adaptation itself.

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Is PA a Spandrel?

Physical activity can be viewed as a spandrel, since its benefits for health and longevity may not be directly linked to its primary evolutionary purpose, which is likely related to survival and reproduction.

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What is a subclone in cancer?

A clone of a cell that has a mutation, contributing to the evolution of cancer.

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What is clonal sweep in cancer?

The process where one subclone outcompetes others in a cancerous cell population, increasing the prevalence of the mutated cells.

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What is apoptosis and its role in the body?

Programmed cell death, a natural process crucial for maintaining healthy tissue and eliminating damaged cells. The innate immune system, especially inflammation, plays a significant role.

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What is the application of the mismatch hypothesis to cancer?

The mismatch between our modern diet and physical activity patterns and our evolutionary history, leading to a greater risk of chronic diseases.

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What is the Active Grandparent Hypothesis?

The hypothesis that evolutionary pressures favored increased physical activity in middle age, extending lifespan and benefiting inclusive fitness by promoting health.

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What is the embodied capital hypothesis?

A hypothesis that attempts to explain the evolution of longer lifespans and traits such as increased brain size and prolonged childhood in humans.

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What is the grandmother hypothesis in human evolution?

The hypothesis that the grandmother's role as caregiver for grandchildren increases inclusive fitness, leading to selection for longer lifespans.

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What are reactive oxygen species (ROS) and their effects?

Byproducts of mitochondrial metabolism that can cause cellular damage, dysfunction, and even death.

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Study Notes

Type 2 Diabetes

  • Caused by cells not responding to insulin
  • Dysfunction of cells prevents glucose from entering cells
  • Pancreas produces insulin which unlocks cells, enabling glucose storage
  • Insulin regulates glucose levels in the body

Thrifty Genotype Hypothesis

  • Proposed by Neil in 1962
  • Suggests a genetic predisposition to Type 2 diabetes related to periods of famine
  • Indigenous populations have a history of experiencing famines and periods of death.
  • Critique: many genes have small additive effects, long periods of famine are not hazardous or frequent in some populations.

Leptin

  • Hormone that regulates body weight by signaling the brain when a person is full

Genetic Drift

  • Random changes in allele frequencies within a population over time.
  • Often due to random chance, can lead to a reduction in allelic diversity.

Founder Effect

  • A specific type of genetic drift where a small population separates from a larger one and starts a new population with a smaller subset of the original diversity.

Social Determinants of Health

  • Poverty
  • Lack of access to health options for food
  • Lack of access to irrigation and land

Thrifty Phenotype Hypothesis

  • Undernutrition during development (infancy, childhood, gestation) leads to metabolic changes in adulthood.
  • Body adapts to scarcity, promoting fat storage for energy reserves
  • Lower growth rates and reduced metabolic rate.
  • Potential issues such as diabetes, hypertension and other cardiometabolic diseases

Growth Stunting

  • Height for age z-score (HAZ) <- 1.5 or 2
  • Standard deviation away from the average/mean height for a given age

Respiratory Quotient (RQ)

  • Measures the body's metabolic state (fat, carbohydrates, or protein) during fasting.
  • Calculated as VCO2/VO2 (VCO2=carbon dioxide production, VO2=oxygen consumption).
  • Close to 1.0 =carbohydrate metabolism
  • Close to 0.71 = fat metabolism

Evolutionary Constraint

  • Thrifty phenotype is constrained by evolutionary factors.
  • Beneficial during famine periods, but not for modern diets.
  • The pattern is not necessarily adaptive.

Immediate Adaptive Hypothesis

  • Short-term adaptation to cope with a challenging situation.
  • Body prioritizes immediate survival over long-term health consequences.
  • The adaptation comes at a cost to health, impacting fitness in the long term.

Predictive Adaptive Hypothesis

  • Longer-term adaptation to anticipate future environmental conditions, preparing for difficult periods.
  • The resulting phenotype promotes robustness through different cycles.
  • Early life conditions predict risks and create adaptations for later in life.

Immune Function

  • Fundamental system of the body for defense against pathogens

Stress

  • Body's response to environmental stressors, which could damage health

Autonomic Nervous System

  • Regulates unconscious body functions such as heart rate, blushing, digestion.
  • Composed of the sympathetic (fight-or-flight) and parasympathetic (rest-and-digest).

Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal (HPA) Axis

  • The body's response to physical or psychological stressors.
  • Hypothalamus releases CRH which stimulates the pituitary gland to release ACTH, leading to cortisol release by adrenal glands.

Cortisol

  • Regulates various bodily functions and is released in times of high stress

Energy Allocation Model

  • Stress allocates energy to stress response and away from other processes (immune function, growth, reproduction)

IBS (Irritable Bowel Syndrome)

  • Affects 10-15% of adults in the US
  • Associated with increased populations of specific gut bacteria (Veillonella and Lactobacillus).

Microbiota/Microbiome

  • Microbial organisms residing within the body.
  • Diversity in the microbiome varies by location within the body and over lifespan
  • Diet, antibiotics, and stress can influence the types and quantities of microbes.

Taxa/Taxon

  • Taxonomic group like species or genes.

Evolutionary Hypotheses of Gut Microbiome

  • Composition of the gut microbiome (current state) may differ from past evolutionary states.
  • Could be a byproduct of changing lifestyles and diets.

Obstetrical Dilemma

  • Adaptations for bipedalism (walking on two legs) cause changes to the pelvic region, influencing birth canal width and difficulty.
  • Head size and position of the birth canal can create a conflict between opposing selective pressures for birth and mobility

Encephalization

  • Increase in brain size relative to body size in humans.
  • Contributes to human cognitive capabilities.

Stabilizing Selection

  • Favors the middle range of traits for a trait (e.g., birth canal size).

Energetics of Gestation and Growth (EGG) Hypothesis

  • Fetal needs increasingly exceed the mother's ability to provide energy
  • This creates a pressure point between selection pressures favouring growth and maternal resources

Innate Immunity

  • Body's first line of defense response and non specific to pathogen

Adaptive Immunity

  • Specific Acquired responses and developed from prior exposure to pathogens

Hygiene Hypothesis

  • Early life exposure to pathogens is important for training the immune system.
  • Reduced exposure to pathogens, in modern environments, can lead to increased risk of autoimmune diseases.

Worms

  • Exposure to worms during childhood can influence the immune system to enhance tolerance or resistance to pathogens.

Schistomiasis

  • Caused by parasitic flatworms (schistosomes).
  • Can lead to numerous health issues.
  • Places with high parasite loads have lower rates of autoimmune diseases.

Reproductive Hormones

  • Progesterone, Estrogen and others play a vital role in the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and other biological processes

Menstruation

  • Elimination of pathogens from the female reproductive tract.
  • Signal of fertility.
  • Possible evolutionary mechanism for removing non-viable embryos

Dose-dependent relationship between Physical Activity and Cancer

  • Moderate exercise (3-4 hours per week) is linked with lower risk of breast and colon cancer
  • Physical activity can improve the immune system's response to cancer cells.

Spandrel

  • A concept that a certain trait may arise as a consequence of adaptation for another trait, rather than evolving directly for its functions.

Grandmother Hypothesis

  • Proposes that grandmothers contribute to the survival of their grandchildren

Active Grandparent Hypothesis

  • Physical activity in middle age may have evolved to improve somatic maintenance

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Description

Explore the intricacies of Type 2 Diabetes, including its causes and the Thrifty Genotype Hypothesis. Understand the role of leptin in weight regulation, alongside genetic phenomena like genetic drift and the founder effect. Test your knowledge on these essential topics in biology and genetics.

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