Type 2 Diabetes and Thrifty Genotype Hypothesis

The evolutionary conflict between the need for a narrow pelvis for efficient bipedalism and the need for a wider pelvis to accommodate the birth of large-brained babies.

The enlargement of the brain relative to the body in humans.

A trait that favors moderate or average values, while selecting against extreme values.

Species whose offspring are born with a greater degree of maturity and mobility.

Species whose offspring are born relatively immature and helpless.

The theory explaining the challenge faced by human mothers during childbirth due to the conflict between a narrow pelvis for efficient walking and the need for a wider pelvis to accommodate large-brained babies.

The evolutionary increase in brain size, leading to larger skulls that need to pass through a relatively narrow pelvis.

While a narrow pelvis is crucial for efficient bipedal movement, the study found that the female birth canal exhibits considerable variation, suggesting that stabilizing selection alone may not be the primary factor in maintaining its size.

The first phase of the menstrual cycle where the egg develops in the ovary, leading to a rise in estrogen that thickens the uterine lining.

The second phase of the menstrual cycle following ovulation, where the ruptured follicle transforms into a corpus luteum and produces progesterone, preparing the uterine lining for pregnancy.

The process of shedding the uterine lining due to decreasing estrogen and progesterone levels.

The shedding of the uterine lining is a costly process, requiring energy.

The removal of potentially harmful pathogens associated with sperm during menstruation.

The removal of non-viable embryos during menstruation.

The number of menstrual cycles a woman experiences is linked to her risk of developing certain cancers.

Inflammation associated with ovulation and menstruation increases the risk of certain types of cancer.

Hypothesizes that pregnancy ends when the fetus's energy needs surpass the mother's ability to supply them.

The body's natural defenses against infection and injury, present without prior exposure to a specific pathogen.

A rapid, non-specific response to external or internal triggers, involving inflammation and other protective mechanisms.

Immune system components that are highly specific to individual pathogens and improve with repeated exposure.

A substance that triggers a specific immune response, often a component of a pathogen.

The theory that reduced exposure to parasites in modern environments may contribute to an increased susceptibility to allergies and autoimmune disorders.

Specialized white blood cells involved in recognizing and destroying specific cells infected with viruses or transformed into cancer cells.

White blood cells that produce antibodies, which are proteins that bind to and neutralize specific pathogens.

The process by which the immune system learns to distinguish between harmless and harmful substances.

A type of white blood cell with various functions, including directly killing virus-infected cells (killer T cells) and regulating immune responses (helper T-cells).

A type of helper T cell that primarily targets bacteria and viruses.

A type of helper T cell that primarily targets worms and other large parasites.

A parasitic flatworm that causes schistosomiasis, a disease characterized by pain, malnutrition, anemia, and diarrhea.

A type of immune regulation where the body's response is adjusted, often by reducing or enhancing the immune response.

A hormone that stimulates the release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) from the pituitary gland, playing a crucial role in regulating the menstrual cycle and reproduction.

A hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates ovulation in females and testosterone production in males.

A hormone produced by the pituitary gland that stimulates the growth and development of follicles in the ovaries and sperm production in testes.

A group of steroid hormones that play vital roles in the development and regulation of the female reproductive system, including the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and secondary sex characteristics.

A steroid hormone produced by the ovaries that plays a critical role in the menstrual cycle, preparation for pregnancy, and other aspects of the reproductive system.

A type of cell death that is programmed and controlled by the body, often triggered by the immune system.

A group of cells that are all descendants of a single ancestral cell with a specific mutation, playing a crucial role in understanding cancer's origins.

A process where one subclone within a population of cancerous cells outcompetes neighboring cells by multiplying rapidly, leading to a dominance of cells with the mutation.

The idea that differences in our modern environment (like diet and physical activity) compared to our ancestral past can negatively impact our health.

The state of consuming more energy (calories) than we burn, leading to weight gain. Linked to increased risk of certain cancers, like breast, prostate, colon, and pancreatic.

A hypothesis proposing that the evolution of increased physical activity in middle age was due to selection for longer lifespans, as active grandparents can contribute to the survival and well-being of grandchildren.

The idea that a combination of factors, like larger brains, longer childhoods, intergenerational transfers, and long lifespans, have co-evolved in humans due to a dietary shift.

The study of evolutionary principles applied to the origins and progression of cancer, helping to understand its origins and potentially develop new treatment strategies.

Type 2 diabetes, a condition where cells fail to respond to insulin properly, results in the inability of glucose to enter cells for energy. This leads to elevated blood sugar levels.

Insulin, produced by the pancreas, acts as a key to unlock cells, allowing glucose to enter for energy. This process regulates blood sugar levels.

The thrifty genotype hypothesis proposes that individuals with specific genes are better adapted to survive periods of famine, leading to increased fat storage. This is argued to be a cause of the increasing rates of type 2 diabetes.

Leptin is a hormone produced by fat cells that regulates appetite by signaling the brain when you're full.

Genetic drift refers to random changes in gene frequencies within a population over time due to chance events.

A special case of genetic drift, the founder effect occurs when a small subset of a population establishes a new population with limited genetic diversity.

The thrifty phenotype hypothesis suggests that undernutrition during early development leads to metabolic changes in adulthood, increasing the risk of chronic diseases like diabetes.

Growth stunting refers to a condition where an individual's height is significantly lower than the average for their age, usually due to chronic undernutrition in early life.

The respiratory quotient (RQ) is a measure of how much carbon dioxide is produced relative to oxygen consumed. It indicates the body's primary energy source (fat, carbohydrates, or protein).

Sensitive periods are critical stages of development where the individual is particularly susceptible to environmental influences that can have long-lasting effects on health and well-being.

The evolutionary constraint argument proposes that the thrifty phenotype is a consequence of evolutionary pressure and not an adaptive response to undernutrition.

The immediate adaptive response hypothesis suggests that the thrifty phenotype helps the fetus/infant survive undernutrition but comes with a cost to health later in life.

The predictive adaptive response hypothesis suggests that early life nutrition provides cues about future environmental conditions, prompting the developing individual to adapt their metabolism accordingly.

Stress refers to the body's physiological response to challenges or stressors, which can disrupt homeostasis and affect adaptive capacity.

The autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary bodily functions like heart rate, breathing, and digestion. The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for the 'fight or flight' response, while the parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for 'rest and digest'.

The HPA axis (Hypothalamus-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis) is a complex system that regulates the body's response to stress, involving the release of hormones like cortisol.

Cortisol, a hormone produced by the adrenal glands, plays a crucial role in regulating various bodily functions and responding to stress. Chronic elevated cortisol levels can lead to various negative health outcomes.

The energy allocation model suggests that chronic stress depletes energy reserves that would otherwise be allocated to crucial processes like immune function, repair, and growth, leading to impaired health.