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Questions and Answers
A software engineer initially estimates a project will take 40 hours and after working 30 hours, realizes it needs an additional 50 hours. According to the sunk cost fallacy, what action are they most likely to take?
A software engineer initially estimates a project will take 40 hours and after working 30 hours, realizes it needs an additional 50 hours. According to the sunk cost fallacy, what action are they most likely to take?
- Abandon the project, recognizing the initial estimate was flawed.
- Continue the project, because of the time already invested, even if it exceeds the project's value. (correct)
- Re-evaluate the project's value objectively and decide based on current estimates.
- Seek a second opinion to determine if the remaining work can be reduced.
In deductive reasoning, which of the following represents the correct sequence of steps?
In deductive reasoning, which of the following represents the correct sequence of steps?
- Hypothesis $\rightarrow$ Theory $\rightarrow$ Confirmation $\rightarrow$ Observations
- Theory $\rightarrow$ Hypothesis $\rightarrow$ Observations $\rightarrow$ Confirmation (correct)
- Observations $\rightarrow$ Pattern $\rightarrow$ Hypothesis $\rightarrow$ Theory
- Pattern $\rightarrow$ Theory $\rightarrow$ Hypothesis $\rightarrow$ Observation
A marketing team is deciding whether to frame an advertising campaign around the message that their product saves customers money or helps them earn rewards. Which cognitive bias are they directly addressing with this decision?
A marketing team is deciding whether to frame an advertising campaign around the message that their product saves customers money or helps them earn rewards. Which cognitive bias are they directly addressing with this decision?
- Framing Effect (correct)
- Confirmation Bias
- Anchoring Bias
- Availability Heuristic
A child learns that dogs bark. Later, they see a wolf and assume it also barks. What type of reasoning is the child using?
A child learns that dogs bark. Later, they see a wolf and assume it also barks. What type of reasoning is the child using?
A person struggles to open a door because they keep pulling on it, even after noticing a sign that says 'push'. Which concept does this demonstrate?
A person struggles to open a door because they keep pulling on it, even after noticing a sign that says 'push'. Which concept does this demonstrate?
Which scenario best exemplifies the use of divergent thinking?
Which scenario best exemplifies the use of divergent thinking?
A person is asked to estimate the population of a city. To help them answer, they are first told the population of a similar city. They base their answer on that information, not adjusting enough. What bias is at play?
A person is asked to estimate the population of a city. To help them answer, they are first told the population of a similar city. They base their answer on that information, not adjusting enough. What bias is at play?
A researcher is conducting a study on language acquisition in infants. Which aspect of language development would be investigated when examining the different sounds infants make?
A researcher is conducting a study on language acquisition in infants. Which aspect of language development would be investigated when examining the different sounds infants make?
Damage to Wernicke's area is most likely to result in which of the following impairments?
Damage to Wernicke's area is most likely to result in which of the following impairments?
A child struggles to understand that a tall, narrow glass contains the same amount of water as a short, wide glass, even though they saw the water being poured between them. According to Piaget, which cognitive development stage is the child likely in?
A child struggles to understand that a tall, narrow glass contains the same amount of water as a short, wide glass, even though they saw the water being poured between them. According to Piaget, which cognitive development stage is the child likely in?
A researcher hypothesizes that a new teaching method will improve test scores. She only publishes results from studies that support her hypothesis and ignores contradictory findings. This is an example of what?
A researcher hypothesizes that a new teaching method will improve test scores. She only publishes results from studies that support her hypothesis and ignores contradictory findings. This is an example of what?
Which of the following best illustrates the concept of 'functional fixedness'?
Which of the following best illustrates the concept of 'functional fixedness'?
According to Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence, which type of intelligence is most closely related to successfully adapting to everyday life and 'street smarts'?
According to Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence, which type of intelligence is most closely related to successfully adapting to everyday life and 'street smarts'?
A pregnant woman's doctor warns her about the dangers of alcohol consumption during pregnancy, as it can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcohol, in this case, is acting as a what?
A pregnant woman's doctor warns her about the dangers of alcohol consumption during pregnancy, as it can lead to fetal alcohol syndrome. Alcohol, in this case, is acting as a what?
Researchers studying identical twins raised in different environments observe differences in their IQ scores. This scenario best illustrates which concept?
Researchers studying identical twins raised in different environments observe differences in their IQ scores. This scenario best illustrates which concept?
Which of Gardner's multiple intelligences is most directly related to understanding and using language effectively, both orally and in writing?
Which of Gardner's multiple intelligences is most directly related to understanding and using language effectively, both orally and in writing?
A child is consistently praised for successfully completing tasks at school. According to Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, which stage is most affected by this reinforcement?
A child is consistently praised for successfully completing tasks at school. According to Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, which stage is most affected by this reinforcement?
A teenager is struggling to decide what career path to pursue. They experiment with different hobbies and take various elective courses in school. According to Erikson, which psychosocial crisis is the teenager primarily grappling with?
A teenager is struggling to decide what career path to pursue. They experiment with different hobbies and take various elective courses in school. According to Erikson, which psychosocial crisis is the teenager primarily grappling with?
A young adult finds it difficult to form meaningful, long-lasting relationships, and as a result, feels lonely and isolated. According to Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, in which stage is this individual struggling?
A young adult finds it difficult to form meaningful, long-lasting relationships, and as a result, feels lonely and isolated. According to Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, in which stage is this individual struggling?
According to Vygotsky's theory, what is the primary role of a more knowledgeable other (MKO) in a learner's cognitive development?
According to Vygotsky's theory, what is the primary role of a more knowledgeable other (MKO) in a learner's cognitive development?
A child is presented with the Heinz dilemma and argues that Heinz should steal the drug because if his wife dies, he will be lonely. According to Kohlberg's stages of moral development, what level of moral reasoning is the child demonstrating?
A child is presented with the Heinz dilemma and argues that Heinz should steal the drug because if his wife dies, he will be lonely. According to Kohlberg's stages of moral development, what level of moral reasoning is the child demonstrating?
A researcher observes that children with secure attachment styles tend to exhibit greater resilience and better emotional regulation skills in adolescence. Which aspect of attachment theory best explains this outcome?
A researcher observes that children with secure attachment styles tend to exhibit greater resilience and better emotional regulation skills in adolescence. Which aspect of attachment theory best explains this outcome?
A parent consistently imposes strict rules on their child without explaining the reasons behind them, expecting unquestioning obedience. Which parenting style is this parent exhibiting?
A parent consistently imposes strict rules on their child without explaining the reasons behind them, expecting unquestioning obedience. Which parenting style is this parent exhibiting?
How does secure attachment in infancy MOST likely influence an individual's approach to conflict resolution in adult romantic relationships?
How does secure attachment in infancy MOST likely influence an individual's approach to conflict resolution in adult romantic relationships?
Flashcards
Functional Fixedness
Functional Fixedness
Inability to see alternative uses for an object.
Mental Set
Mental Set
Tendency to approach problems using past strategies.
Algorithms
Algorithms
Step-by-step procedures ensuring correct solutions.
Heuristics
Heuristics
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Inductive Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning
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Deductive Reasoning
Deductive Reasoning
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Availability Heuristic
Availability Heuristic
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Linguistic Relativity
Linguistic Relativity
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Broca's area
Broca's area
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Wernicke's area
Wernicke's area
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Confirmation Bias
Confirmation Bias
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Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
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Heritability of Intelligence
Heritability of Intelligence
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Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
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Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
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Scaffolding
Scaffolding
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Attachment Styles
Attachment Styles
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Strange Situation Task
Strange Situation Task
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Kohlberg's Moral Development Stages
Kohlberg's Moral Development Stages
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Erikson's Psychosocial Development
Erikson's Psychosocial Development
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Impact of Early Attachment
Impact of Early Attachment
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Parenting Styles
Parenting Styles
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Study Notes
Thinking, Reasoning, and Language
- Functional fixedness: Inability to see alternative uses for an object
- Mental set: Tendency to approach problems using past strategies
- Algorithms vs. heuristics: Algorithms are step-by-step procedures ensuring correct solutions, while heuristics are mental shortcuts.
- Inductive vs. deductive reasoning: Inductive reasoning involves specific observations leading to general conclusions; deductive reasoning involves general principles leading to specific conclusions.
- Cognitive biases:
- Availability heuristic: Estimating likelihood based on ease of recall.
- Representativeness heuristic: Judging based on similarity to prototypes.
- Confirmation bias: Seeking information supporting existing beliefs.
- Hindsight bias: Believing outcomes were predictable after the fact.
- Loss aversion: Preferring avoiding losses to gaining equivalent rewards.
- Sunk cost fallacy: Continuing investments based on prior commitments.
- Anchoring bias: Over-relying on initial information.
- Gambler's fallacy: Belief that past events affect future probabilities.
- Framing effect: Different responses to identical choices based on presentation.
- Metacognition: Thinking about one's own thinking.
- Cognitive load: Mental effort required for a task.
- Divergent vs. convergent thinking: Divergent thinking generates multiple solutions, while convergent thinking narrows down to the best solution.
- Top-down vs. bottom-up processing: Top-down processing uses prior knowledge, bottom-up processing processes new information as it comes.
- Problem-solving strategies: Trial and error, means-end analysis, subgoals.
- Insight vs. analytical problem-solving: Insight involves sudden realization, while analytical problem-solving is logical analysis.
Language and Cognition
- Language components: Phonemes, morphemes, syntax, semantics, pragmatics
- Language acquisition stages: Babbling, one-word, two-word, complex.
- Critical period hypothesis: Optimal time for language learning.
- Bilingualism and cognitive flexibility: Benefits of speaking multiple languages.
- Linguistic relativity (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis): Language influences thought.
- Code-switching: Alternating between languages.
- Language deprivation: Lack of exposure impairs language development.
- Broca's and Wernicke's areas: Broca's area relates to speech production, Wernicke's area to comprehension.
- Aphasia: Language impairments due to brain damage.
Intelligence and IQ Testing
- Functional fixedness: Inability to see new uses for familiar objects.
- Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences: Diverse types of intelligence (e.g., bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, linguistic).
- Inductive reasoning: Drawing general conclusions from specific observations.
- Confirmation bias: Seeking information confirming existing beliefs.
- IQ vs. intellectual disability: Differences in cognitive functioning.
- Triarchic theory of intelligence (Sternberg): Analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.
- Heritability of intelligence: Influence of genetics on intelligence.
- Boring's Dictum: Intelligence is what intelligence tests measure.
- Binet and Simon's IQ test: Early intelligence measurement.
- Spearman's G and S: General Intelligence vs. specific abilities.
- Cattel and Horn's Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence: Problem-solving vs. acquired knowledge.
- Calculating IQ: Formula and interpretation.
- Eugenics movement: Controversial history of intelligence testing.
- WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale): Standardized IQ test.
- Emotional intelligence: Understanding and managing emotions.
- IQ vs. mental disability: How IQ relates to intellectual disabilities.
- Heritability of intelligence: Genetics' role in intelligence.
- Fixed vs. growth mindset: Beliefs about intelligence affecting learning.
- Socioeconomic status and intelligence: How social factors impact intelligence.
Developmental Psychology
- Egocentrism
- Conservation: Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance
- Assimilation vs. Accommodation: How we adapt knowledge
- Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory: Zone of proximal development (ZPD), scaffolding, role of culture
- Attachment Theory (Bowlby & Ainsworth): Attachment styles, impact of early attachment
- Strange Situation Task: Identifying attachment styles
- Attachment styles: Secure, avoidant, anxious, disorganized
- Impact of early attachment on adult relationships: Foundation for intimacy
- Harlow's Contact Comfort Experiments: Importance of physical comfort in attachment
- Erikson's Psychosocial Development: Stages of psychosocial development (trust vs. mistrust, etc.)
- Kohlberg's stages of moral development: Preconventional, conventional, postconventional
- Heinz dilemma: Ethical decision-making.
- Gilligan's critique of Kohlberg Gender considerations in moral reasoning.
- Parenting styles: Authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, uninvolved
- Effects of divorce on development: Psychological effects on children.
- Cultural differences in attachment and parenting: Variations across societies.
- Effects of early social interactions on later personality: Influence of childhood experiences
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Description
Explore cognitive processes: functional fixedness, mental sets, algorithms, and heuristics. Understand inductive and deductive reasoning alongside cognitive biases like availability, representativeness, and confirmation. Learn about hindsight bias, loss aversion, and the sunk cost fallacy.
