Theories of Development and Diversity

Review of Theories Related to Learners' Development

• Sigmund Freud developed the Psychoanalytic Theory, also known as the Psychosexual Theory of Development.
• Jean Piaget is known for Cognitive Development.
• Erik Erikson developed the Psychosocial Theory of Development.
• Lawrence Kohlberg is known for Moral Development theory.
• Lev Vygotsky developed the Social Development Theory / Zone of Proximal Development.
• Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory is another notable theory.

Understanding Diversity

• Diversity refers to the differences in social identities.
• Diversity is the representation of all our varied identities and differences.
• Diversity includes any attribute that may lead people to think one individual is different from another (Triandis et al., 1994).
• The phrase by Temple Grandin: "...DIFFERENT but NOT LESS" encapsulates the idea of individual differences.

Factors Influencing Student Diversity

• Student diversity arises from factors beyond gender, racial, ethnic, and cultural background.
• Socioeconomic status contributes to student diversity.
• Thinking and learning styles lead to diversity in the classroom.
• Exceptionalities in learners also increase diversity.

Enriching the Learning Environment through Student Diversity

• A reflective teacher views a diverse classroom as an exciting learning environment for both the students and themselves.
• Students' self-awareness is enhanced by diversity.
• Student diversity contributes to cognitive development.
• Student diversity prepares learners to become responsible members of society.
• Student diversity promotes harmony.

Tips for Addressing Student Diversity

• Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences.
• Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students’ multicultural and cross-cultural awareness.
• Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend group differences.
• Communicate high expectations to students from all subgroups.
• Varied instructional methods accommodate student diversity in learning styles.
• Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide multiple contexts that are relevant to students from diverse backgrounds.
• Diversify methods of assessing and evaluating student learning.
• Adapt to the students' diverse backgrounds and learning styles by allowing them personal choice and decision-making opportunities concerning what they learn and how.
• Intentionally form small-discussion groups of students from diverse backgrounds to include different learning styles/cultural backgrounds.

Learning/Thinking Styles

• Learning/thinking styles refer to the preferred way an individual processes information.
• Describes a person's typical mode of thinking, remembering, or problem-solving.
• Styles are usually considered to be bipolar dimensions.
• Having a particular learning/thinking style simply denotes a tendency to behave in a certain manner.
• Style is usually described as a personality dimension which influences attitudes, values and social interaction.

Perspectives About Learning-Thinking Styles

• Sensory Preferences include visual learners, auditory learners, and tactile/kinesthetic learners.
• Global-Analytic Continuum consist of analytic/successive hemispheric style and global/simultaneous hemispheric style.
• Analytic/Successive Hemispheric Style is when:
  • Verbal
  • Responds to word meaning
  • Sequential
  • Process information linearly
  • Responds to logic
  • One Plans ahead
  • One Recalls people's names
  • One Speaks with few gestures
  • One is Punctual
  • One Prefers formal study design
  • One Prefers bright lights while studying
• Simultaneous Hemispheric Style is when:
  • Visual
  • Responds to tone of voice
  • Random
  • Processes information in varied order
  • Responds to emotion
  • One is Impulsive
  • One Recalls people's faces
  • One Gestures when speaking
  • One is Less punctual
  • One Prefers sound/music background while studying
  • One Prefers frequent mobility while studying

Multiple Intelligences

• MI was first described by Howard Gardner in Frames of Mind (1983).
• Gardner defines intelligence as "an ability or set of abilities that allows a person to solve a problem or fashion a product that is valued in one or more cultures."
• Gardner believes that different intelligences may be independent abilities.
• A person can be low in one domain area but high in another.
• Everyone possesses the intelligences but in varying degrees of strength.

9 Kinds of Multiple Intelligences

• Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart) is about learning visually and organizing ideas spatially.
• Seeing concepts in action in order to understand them and the ability to "see" things in one's mind.
• Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence (Word Smart) is about learning through the spoken and written word.
• Always valued in the traditional classroom and in traditional assessments of intelligence and achievement.
• Mathematical/Logical Intelligence (Number/Logic Smart) is about learning through reasoning and problem-solving.
• Also highly valued in the traditional classroom where students are asked to adapt to logically sequenced delivery of instruction.
• Bodily/Kinesthetic Intelligence (Body Smart) is about learning through interaction with one's environment.
• This intelligence is the domain of “overly active" learners and promotes understanding through concrete experiences.
• Musical Intelligence (Music Smart) involves learning through patterns, rhythms, and music.
• Includes not only auditory learning but also the identification of patterns through all the senses.
• Intrapersonal Intelligence (Self Smart) involved learning through feelings, values, and attitudes.
• Affective component of learning, which students place value on what they learn and take ownership for their learning.
• Interpersonal Intelligence (People Smart) learning promotes interacting with others.
• Not the domain of children who are simply "talkative” of “overly social," but promotes collaboration and working cooperatively with others.
• Naturalist Intelligence (Nature Smart) includes learning through classification, categories and hierarchies.
• The naturalist intelligence picks up on subtle differences in meaning and is not simply the study of nature.
• Existential Intelligence (Spirit Smart) includes learning by seeing the “big picture".
• Seeks connections to real world understanding and application of new learning.

Teaching Strategies

• Teaching strategies are guided by the thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligences.
• Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking from recalling factual information to drawing implications and making value judgments.
• Provide a general overview of material to be learned i.e., structured overviews, advance organizers.
• Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and then integrate using both the right and left brain hemispheres.
• Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing or reading experience.
• Warm up before the lesson development by using brainstorming, set induction, etc.
• Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving information, writing directions on the board and give them orally.
• Use a variety of review and reflection strategies to bring closure to learning, writing summaries, and creating opinion surveys.
• Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising.

Learners with Exceptionalities

• Encompasses those with special needs related to cognitive abilities, behavior, social functioning, physical and sensory impairments, emotional disturbances, and giftedness.
• Most of these learners require a lot of understanding and patience as well as special education and related services to reach their development and support from the people around them.
• It is necessary to have the right information and proper attitude when dealing with special learners.

Distinguishing Disability and Handicap

• Disability is a measurable impairment or limitation that "interferes with a person's ability.
• May be a physical, sensory, or mental condition (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996).
• Handicap is a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment.

Categories of Exceptionalities

• Specific cognitive or academic difficulties include learning disabilities, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and speech/communication disorders.
• Social/emotional and behavioural difficulties include autism, mental retardation, and emotional/conduct disorders.
• Physical disabilities and health impairments include physical and health impairments, severe and multiple disabilities, sensory impairments, visual impairments, and hearing impairments.
• Additionally, giftedness is considered an exceptionality.

Specific Cognitive or Academic Difficulties In Detail

• Learning disabilities involve difficulties in specific cognitive processes like perception, language, memory or metacognition.
• Not due to other disabilities like mental retardation, emotional/behavioral disorders, or sensory impairments and include dyslexia, dyscalculia, and dysgraphia.
• Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorders (ADHD) manifest in either or both difficulty focusing and maintaining attention and recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior.
• Speech and Communication Disorders involve difficulty in spoken language.
• Voice disorders, inability to produce the sounds...correctly, stuttering, difficulty in spoken language comprehension that significantly hamper classroom performance.

Social/Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties In Detail

• Autism is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviors and limited interests and an intense need for routine and a predictable environment.
• Mental retardation refers to significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive bahavior for managing activities of daily living in conducting themselves appropriately in social situations.
• Emotional / Conduct Disorders involve the presence of emotional states depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time that disturb learning and performance in school.

Physical Disabilities and Health Impairments In Detail

• Physical and Health Impairments involve physical or medical conditions including limited energy and strength or reduced mental alertness or little muscle control.
• Severe and Multiple Disabilities refers to the presence of two or more different types of disability, where the combination of disabilities makes it necessary to make specific adaptations and have more specialized educational programs.
• Sensory Impairments are conditions when there is malfunction of:
  • The eyes or optic nerves which is called Visual Impairments and prevent normal vision even with corrective lenses.
  • The ear or auditory nerves which is called Hearing Impairments and hinders perception of sounds within the frequency range of normal speech.
• Giftedness involves intellectual ability, aptitude in academic subjects, creativity, visual or performing arts and leadership

People-First Language

• Putting the person first, not the disability. (e.g. a person with disability, not disabled person).
• This language tells us what conditions people have, not what they are (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996).
• Is similar to saying "person with AIDS” rather than "AIDS victim.
• Other suggestions include:
  • Avoiding generic labels (“people with mental retardation” rather than “mentally retarded”).
  • Emphasizing abilities, not limitations (“uses a wheelchair” rather than "confined to a wheelchair”).
  • Avoiding euphemisms (such as “physically-challenged") which are regarded as condescending.
  • Avoid implying illness or suffering ("had polio" rather than “is a polio victim”).