Sports & Exercise Science Principles

• Sport Management Learner's Guide is for Sports & Exercise Science (SM43007FP).
• Higher Nitec provides this guide.

Unit 1: Principles of Exercise

• This unit defines sports and exercise science and identifies different disciplines.
• It describes exercise and fitness concepts, explains health benefits of physical fitness, the relationship between fitness and health, and identifies applications of exercise & sports science.

What is Exercise and Sports Science?

• Science systematically gathers knowledge through observation and experimentation.
• Science is objective and evidence-based.
• Exercise and Sports Science (ESS) studies the connection between human movement, exercise, and sports performance.
• ESS tests ideas through research to examine sports performance science and the influence of exercise on health and fitness.
• Exercise and Sports Science is multi-disciplinary, requiring scientific principles and practical skills in subjects related to sports and exercise.
• Exercise science uses exercise to understand science, explaining human body responses to exercise or physical activity.
• Sports science uses exercise to improve sports performance, applying principles from exercise science.

Disciplines in ESS

• ESS combines knowledge and methods from multiple sports science sub-disciplines.
• A multi-disciplinary approach is necessary due to multi-factorial human performance.
• Possible disciplines include: motor learning, growth & development, biomechanics, physiology, nutrition, psychology, and physical conditioning.
• Motor learning includes neurology, neurophysiology, and cognitive psychology.
• Growth & development includes pediatric science, geriatric science, and motor development.
• Biomechanics includes physics, human anatomy, and computer science.
• Physiology encompasses bioenergetics, biochemistry, and biology.
• Nutrition includes immunology and biochemistry.
• Psychology covers sociology and behavioral neuroscience.
• Physical conditioning consists of athletic training and injury management.

Applications of ESS

• Applications of ESS includes Sports, Industry, Health, Occupational, and Performance.

Basic Concepts / Terms of Exercise and Fitness

• 'Physical activity', 'exercise' and 'physical fitness' describe different concepts, but are often confused.
• Physical activity is any bodily movement that expends energy, found in daily life activities like occupational, sports, conditioning, and household tasks.
• Exercise is planned, structured, repetitive, and deliberate bodily movements, intended to improve or maintain 'physical fitness'.
• Regular engagements in activities such as running, swimming, cycling, and kick boxing.
• Physical fitness is the ability of an individual in managing his lifestyle and occupational tasks.
• Fitness is based on the performance expected of the particular individual, not a standard performance scale.
• Fitness must be defined in relation to a specific task, activity, or sport.
• Health is the state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity, according to the World Health Organization, 1948.
• Health is a holistic concept related to aspects of a person as a whole.
• The definition of health varies as it relates to physical, mental, emotional, social and psychological aspects of peoples lives.
• Health and fitness are related but not the same.
• The fitter a person is, the healthier they are likely to be and vice versa.
• It is possible to be fit but not healthy, as health is a wider concept then physical fitness.

Stages of Exercise Participation

• The five stages of exercise participation are: Sedentary, Physical Activity, Physical Exercise, Physical Training, and Competitive Training.
• Sedentary: No or minimal activity; detrimental to health.
• Physical Activity: Regular, unstructured activity without goals; minimal health benefits.
• Physical Exercise: Regular, structured, moderate intensity activity; beneficial health gains are expected.
• Physical Training: Frequent, high intensity activity with goals; improvements are achieved.
• Competitive Training: Frequent, high intensity exercise aiming for achieving a specific result.

Costs and Benefits of Exercise

• Research shows regular physical activity can reduce disease risk and improve quality of life.
• It's necessary to consider the costs associated with exercise and minimize them.
• Costs of exercise must not outweigh the benefits.
• Physical benefits from training should not exceed other parts of the body to avoid excessive stress, increasing vulnerability to disease and health problems, especially in long training programs
• Over-exercising is more harmful than good.

Stress

• Stress occurs when an athlete lacks coping resources for a challenging event.
• Important events and uncertainty can be stressful.
• Athletes with low self-esteem and confidence, and those who are highly anxious, tend to experience more stress.

Types of Stress

• Eustress is positive, energizing, generally short-term, can improve performance, and is believed to be within coping mechanisms available.
• Distress generally feels unpleasant, often depletes energy, can be short-term or long-term, decreases overall performance, is perceived outside coping mechanisms, and can lead to physical or mental fatigue and emotional depletion.

Reaction to Competition Stress

• Athlete experiencing Demand placed on athlete during an event
• • Positive response Athlete perceives demand as non-threatening and manageable - Athlete responds to demand positively (e.g. positive thoughts, use coping strategies) - Athlete's performance improves
• • Negative response Athlete perceives demand as threatening - Athlete responds to demand negatively (e.g. worry, aroused, state anxiety) - Athletes performance deteriorates.

The Stress Continuum

• Human perception and response to stress is highly individualized.
• A job or sport that one person finds anxiety-provoking may be enjoyable to someone else.
• A person's response to stress varies based on the individual, time, and condition.
• Reaction to stress is based on where, when, and how the stress is experienced.
• A person's perception of a stimulus largely determines how stressful the situation is.
• Eustress includes: Improved fitness, Cope better with daily tasks, Improved self-image & confidence, Stronger immune system
• Distress includes: Burnout, Injury, Substance abuse, Distorted self-image (e.g., muscle dysmorphia, anorexia nervosa)

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

• GAS is the manner in which the human body reacts to stress, be it physical, mental, or emotional.
• Stage 1 - Alarm: Immediate reaction to stress; "fight or flight".
• Stage 2 - Resistance: Body begins to adapt & respond to demands.
• Stage 3 - Super-compensation: Increase in body's functional capacity.
• Stage 4 – Exhaustion / Detraining: Body's resistance to stress reduces.
• Apply GAS Theory to Training
• • Body adapts to stress from training.
• • Time is needed for super-compensation to take place.
• • Extended recovery time results in detraining.

Periodisation

• Periodization is breaking down training into manageable units, each with a specific goal.
• Aim for periodization is to better manage training and adaptation, ensure peak performance at major competitions, and manage athlete fatigue.

Terminology

• Macrocycle: The largest training block, generally considered 1 year.
• Mesocycle: Consists of 2 or more mesocycles within each macrocycle, lasting several weeks or months, dependent upon athletes' goals and competition schedule.
• Microcycle: The mesocycle is divided into 2 or more microcycles, typically 1 week long but could last longer, with daily and weekly training variation.
• Individual sessions: One single training session.
• Variation of one year depends on competition seasons that varies among different sports.

Phases of Periodisation

• A phase is made up of one or more sub-phases.
• • Preparation phase, consists of general preparation and specific preparation sub-phases.
• A sub-phase consists of a group of Mesocycles with the same training direction
• • Varies from 1 week (e.g. a short transition phase) to 24 weeks (a long general preparation phase)

Unit 2 – Motivation Principles

• This unit identifies participant goals and barriers to physical activity, explains motivation and its theories, identifies and develops strategies, minimises barriers, and ensures exercise adherence.

Identify Participant Goals and Barriers to Physical Activity

• Adults should aim for 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic activity weekly.
• Adults should do muscle-strengthening activities at least 2 times per week, working all major muscle groups. What motivates participation in Physical Activity?
• Fitness: I want to be physically healthy.
• Appearance: I want to be build my body so that I am physically attractive.
• Competence: I want to improve in the activity.
• Enjoyment: The activity is fun and makes me happy.
• Social: I want to be with friends.

Motives for Sport Participation

• Financial Success: Via awards, and/or prize money.
• Appearance: Looking physically fit and attractive.
• Popularity/Fame: To be a national hero.
• Community: To give back to society.
• Close relationships: Building close bonds with teammates.
• Personal Growth: Learning new skills. What motivates people to exercise, reduced risk of cardiovascular diseases, reduction in stress and depression, weight control, enjoyment, build self-esteem, socializing.

Why people avoid exercise

• Perceived lack of time (69%), lack of energy (59%) lack of motivation (52%).

Explain what is Motivation

• Motivation is defined by the direction and intensity of effort (Sage, 1977).
• Motivation is influenced by various factors including goal orientation, social environment, cognitive evaluation and interaction of personal, social and external factors.

Types of Motivation

• Motivation is divided into internal and external motivation.
• Internal motivation is a person's drive to succeed from within.
• • Someone trains diligently because he enjoys the game.
• External motivation is the source of motivation from outside the person.
• • Someone trains diligently to win a medal.
• People are motivated by both internal and external motivators.
• A person with no motivation is amotivated.

Theories of Motivation

• Theories are explanations of observable phenomena, which are used to explain the same occurrence.
• Psychological theories aim to explain human behavior.
• A psychological theory should describe a behavior, make predictions about future behavior, have evidence to support these predictions, and be testable.

Self-Efficacy Theory

• Self-Efficacy defined as the belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situation.
• Self-efficacy affects an individual's choice of activities, amount of effort, and extent of persistence when faced with difficulties.
• Bandura (1977) mentions important self efficacy
• • Successful Performance: Degree of success perceived
• • Vicarious experiences: Viewing of success
• • Verbal persuasion: Verbal and nonverbal tactics
• • Emotional Arousal: Emotional and mental readiness

Transtheoretical Model (aka Stages of Change Model)

• Behavior change isn't quick, advancing slowly through stages. Stages need different interventions.

Stages of Change Model

• Pre-contemplation: Unaware of the problem. Need to increase awareness of need to change.
• Contemplation: Thinking about change. Need to motivate, encourage to make specific plans.
• Preparation: Making plans to change. Need to assist concrete actions, setting gradual goals.
• Action: Implementing specific action plans. Assist with feedback, problem solving and social support.
• Maintenance: Repeating steps. Assist in coping, reminders, finding alternatives.

Reinforcement Theory

• Reinforcement is increasing behavior probability.
• If you want your dog to sit on command, you may give him a treat every time it sits for you, until the sitting response is natural.

Identify and Develop Strategies for Participants (Four Types of Reinforcement)

• Positive Reinforcement: Adding positive to increase response. Eg praise.
• Negative Reinforcement: Taking away negative to increase response.
• Punishment: Adding something aversive to decrease behavior
• Extinction: You remove something to decrease a behavior

Goal Orientation

• Personality refers to individual differences in characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling and behaving. (American Psychological Association, 2022)
• Split in Two dimensions: Task and Ego Orientation
• Task Orientation: Actions primarily motivated by personal mastery, improvement, and achievement. Performance defined subjectively and referenced his or her performance.
• Ego Orientation: Motivational focus on winning or achieving superior status with peer.

Motivational Climates

• Personality is result of task- and ego-orientation
• Mastery Climate – focus on improving oneself/skill.
• Performance Climate – focus on competition or attaining a given standard.
• • Adaptive
• • Misfit
• • Maladaptive

Adaptive, focus on improving

• Likely to succeed or fail
• Can focus on improving oneself

Misfit, possible to convert to task focused

• Relies on being able to convert task focus
• Can be more focused if the coach is good to adapt challenges for the athlete.

Maladaptive, lacks motivativation

• Unmotivated to improve or outdo

Minimising and Overcoming Barriers to Participation

• Use of Technology
• • Active Video Games, Wearables, Activity Trackers and Pedometers Smartphones and Fitness Applications and Social Media.
• Keep it fun, Pick an activity you enjoy/Learn new activity, Have variation and Start easy/slowly.
• Monitor progress by Setting goals and Keeping an exercise journal.
• Fit exercise into your life, Be convenient, Establish a routine and Make it a priority.

Monitor and Assist in Participants' Exercise Adherence

• Exercise Adherence is the ability to maintain an exercise program for an extended time.
• Encourage people to be more physically active.
• Follow Charting attendance & performance
• Follow Rewards for attendance & participation
• Follow Feedback to increase the motivation

Goal Setting

• A goal is something that you hope to achieve (Wehmeier, 2007)
• • To attain proficiency (Locke, Shaw, Saari, & Latham, 1981)
• Classified into different types based objective, subjective, outcome performance and process

Why Set Goals

• Provides a better idea of what you want to achieve.
• Provides a clearer direction path to success
• Provides focus to achieve your goals

The S.M.A.R.T.E.R. Principle

• Specific Goals usually answer the five “W” questions (What, Why, Who, Where, Which)
• Measurable Goal usually answers questions such as (How much? How many? How will I know?)
• Acceptable Goals needs to be at a certain standard and consider does this seem worthwhile?
• Realistic Goals needs to be realistic and attainable.
• Time-bound Important to ground goals within a time frame with a deadline.
• Evaluate to comparison of actual goal against initial plans.
• Record Process and goals recorded for future references and consider How that goal can be improved?

Descision Making Approach

• Decision-Making Developing increase awareness of costs and benefits of participating can enhance Adherenece
• Gains Gains to Self and Approval from important others
• Losses losses losses to self and Disapproval from important others
• Social Approaches network can lead to favorable attitude.

Intrinsic Approaches

• Focus on experiences and activities that make it enjoyable.
• Takes a process orientation and engages in meaningful activity.

Unit 3 – Energy Systems

• This unit explains the purpose of energy systems defines energy and metabolism, describe energy pathways, role (ATP), features and function contribution for physical demands.

Energy in the Body

• Energy source: Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) and supplies all energy.
• Limited ATP reserves, needs to rebuild constantly from chemical energy.
• Bodies ability extract energy from the food to rebuild ATP depends run smash or shoot power.
• Intensity of exercise determines rate in which food used to make ATP.

Fuel nutrients (Macronutrients)

• Chemical energy comes from nutrients and they incluse carbs, proteins and fats.

The Metabolic System

• It controls chemical and physical changes, in the body that growth or function.
• Energy light from the sun being converted into photosynthesiss, humans eat plants/animals for food.
• They become absorbed in the food of fats, or carbs which releases as Energy with O2.

How do we get Energy

• ATP is an organic compund that provides energy.
• Muscles contractions ATP is broken down using enzyme into ADP.
• The process breaks down high energy bond therefore energy provides to use on body and it can be resynthesized to let production continue.

What Do The Energy Systems Do

• They work together for sufficient supply to ensure for all daily activities.
• Both both ATP and glycolytic anaerobic so O2 is not req to synthesise.
• Although theses system produce do not lasts
• Bodies ceases and shut down withour continues energy system is supplied..
• Giving the right advice to Athletes. Muscle have ATP molecules however insufficient to give sustain more then only few seconds.
• Number of tasks with aid of ATP

The Energy Systems- 3.5-3.7

• ATP-PCr (Anaerobic) (immediate) (100 power output)
• Glycolytic (Anaerobic) (second best) Power of output (80% power output)
• Oxidative (Aerobic) Depends on O2. (Slowest. Power of output) (40%) ATP System
• It provides energy produced faster.
• Used in short and powerful.
• Immediate production and last 10sec
• Recovery starts when stops requiring oxygen and exponential rate
• Some minutes with complete

Function of ATP

• First few seconds exercise.

After few se cond Exercise

• Muscles break down.

Train the ATP-PC System

• To develop of the energy system
• Repeats max intensiy 10-15sec
• The word to rest ratio is about 1 to 110

Recycling of ATP

• The body is constantly being used.

Replenishment OF PCR

• Reversible in a Pi + reaction again
• The Ocr can not burn all fuel with PCr system

Glycolytic System

• Fast duration of 30-60 the sprinter on track
• Doesnt require and fatigue produced Functions of the system decreases rate

System used is Aaimed to train Lactate

• Improve to rate increase if glycolysis

Training Aerobic System

• Can develop in various of types
• • Continous
• • Interval
• • Fartlek

Distribution

• High immediste ATP, fast glycolytic which decreases
• Oxidative Slow on the decrease together now
• They depend it all

Glycogen

• Rich diets imprives which leads to carbo loading.

Unit 4: Apply Principles of Sport Biomechanics

• Role of sport biomechanics in coaching.
• Distinguish between concepts of Kinetics and Kinematics.
• Purpose of mechanical analysis in coaching
• Discuss process of quantitative and qualitative analysis video tec.
• Structure, explain strength model of assessment toward.

Biomechanics

• Study of bio sys using mechanical forces and their effects.
• Sport Biomechanics in Coaching
• • technique, injury, rehab etc

Kinetic and Kinematics

• Motion description to how fat its going how far and projectiles its is covering
• Foreacting the body which it causes gravity frictions.
• Kinestics includes angular and linear
• Kinematics includes angular and linear
• Linear- the linear travel that you need in the right direction
• Elevator uses pulloey to go up

Motion

• All body points curved from the body
• Example driving around road/vaulting
• Rectilinear has to move along straight line
• Example car on Road/straight 100 path
• Angular motion or rotary with radius
• Can be classified angular of positions of velocuty
• Projectile in the air exerting a parabola
• Exerting on air resist

Factors influencing trajectory (without air resistance)

1. Projection Angle
2. Acceleration for 3)Realease Height

• the height of ground

Biomechanical Terminology To Sport and Exercise

• Five components

1. Motion: body in which objects space-important as speed acceleration.
2. Force: object speed slow etc
3. Momentum: Velocity when moved.
4. Levers- like arms legs
5. Balance with alignment

Balance Important Principles of Stability

• The analysis the most that motion principles over that
• Effective in moments-balance and travel.

Mechanical Concepts And Principles

• Includes in sport are Distance and displacement.
• Acceleration to weight mass/Gravity moment etc with advantage

Newtons laws

• The first law Inertia if body will remain dependent of that
• Law of second Law with acceleration constantly
• If force exerted with opposite
• Displacement and Move where the displacement

Velocity and Accceleration

• Speed is the body in the moving direction
• Accelerating is Time vs/ sl unit
• High you change the body vs over time

Weigjt and Mass

• Weight measurements how they pull to earth
• Mass and mattee and kg for measures
• The depend gravitys pull weigh and lower weigh from moon

interti

• Tend resist
• Moment with distribution that is changeable
• Gravity is the force of earth attraction and its pull at 9,81 with size

Force

• Push exerted from undergo
• Links of new second law
• (Mass and weight) / speed

Motion Law

• The product is mass of velocity

Types of Lever

• System through a lever action etc.
• Fulcrum Point rotate, Lever from Force and Effort from Lever sys.

balance

• Maintain bodies gravity base inside/support.

Stablity for types

• Endure with stability ( feet support)
• Momentary for traveling to intend path
• Lower female compared to males
• Depends on what position

Congruence

• High poles for jumping with the athlete will move through beneath
• Running/walking what is shown