Socrates and the Sophists in Philosophy

The view that reality consists of two distinct and independent substances: mind (immaterial) and body (material). Mental and physical realms exist separately but can interact.

Reason is a gift from God that helps humans understand divine truths. Reason leads to faith by providing the intellectual foundation to accept God.

Reason is complementary to faith. Through natural reason, humans can understand truths about the natural world and some aspects of God. Faith completes reason by revealing divine truths inaccessible to reason alone.

Augustine adopted Plato's theory of Forms but adapted it to Christianity. The Forms became ideas in the mind of God. The World of Forms is synonymous with God's eternal and unchanging nature.

Augustine saw the soul's ascent to God as analogous to Plato's journey from the World of Senses to the World of Forms.

Augustine's proof for God is based on the existence of eternal truths. Truths like mathematics and moral principles are eternal and unchanging. Eternal truths must exist in an eternal and unchanging mind, which Augustine identifies as God.

Evil is not a substance or created entity but a privation (absence) of good. Evil arises when free beings (humans or angels) turn away from God, choosing lesser goods over the ultimate Good.

Truth is eternal and resides in God. Human reason can apprehend truth through divine illumination. Absolute certainty comes from God's eternal nature, as our knowledge is illuminated by Him.

The belief that reason is the primary source of knowledge, and that certain truths can be known independently of experience.

The belief that all knowledge comes from sensory experience and observation.

Knowledge that is independent of sensory experience; it is known prior to or without relying on experience.

Knowledge that is derived from sensory experience or empirical observation; it is known after experience.

Descartes' method of doubting everything he can doubt in order to find indubitable truths.

Descartes' famous statement: "I think, therefore I am." This is a rationalist argument.

A theory of knowledge that emphasizes the role of innate ideas, or concepts that are present in the mind at birth.

Empiricists believe the mind starts empty, like a blank slate, and experience imprints knowledge on the mind.

The mind's inherent categories (e.g., time, space, causality) used to organize sensory data into coherent knowledge. They are not derived from experience.

The world as it appears to us, shaped by the mind's a priori categories. Our experience is always limited to this world.

The world as it exists independent of our perception and cognition. We can never directly access this world.

The ability of the mind to receive raw sensory data from the external world. It provides the material for experience.

The faculty of the mind that organizes and processes sensory data using innate categories. It turns raw data into structured knowledge.

The interaction between sensibility (receiving raw sensory data) and understanding (organizing and processing that data).

The Sophists were ancient Greek teachers who specialized in rhetoric, persuasion, and practical success in society. They emphasized the importance of human affairs and social constructs over abstract philosophical concepts.

They played a key role in shaping Western education by emphasizing the importance of rhetoric and its power to influence opinion and culture. Their focus on human affairs and social constructs also paved the way for later developments in ethics and political philosophy.

The view that knowledge is not solely based on experience, but also on a priori categories that are not derived from experience. These categories shape and structure our perception.

Socrates strongly disliked the Sophists because he believed they prioritized rhetoric over truth, profit over virtue, and relativism over universal moral standards. He opposed their focus on practical success and argued that philosophy should primarily be a pursuit of truth and moral goodness.

The purpose of life, for Socrates, was self-improvement and moral excellence achieved through the pursuit of truth and virtue. He believed that happiness came from living a good and virtuous life, prioritizing wisdom over material wealth and pleasures.

Socrates believed that an unexamined life lacked true meaning. He argued that examining one's values and actions leads to self-knowledge, purpose, and virtue, which are essential for a good and meaningful life. Without it, life becomes passive and devoid of moral growth.

For Socrates, truth was universal and discoverable through reason and dialogue. He believed true knowledge begins with recognizing ignorance, emphasizing intellectual humility.

Socrates linked virtue to knowledge, emphasizing that true knowledge leads to good moral character and actions. He saw virtue as an integral part of a good and meaningful life, not just a matter of external social rules.

Socrates' method of teaching was based on questioning, critical thinking, and challenging assumptions. He believed that through dialogue and questioning, individuals could arrive at a deeper understanding of themselves and the world.

A moral philosophy that emphasizes actions that lead to the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.

The guiding principle of utilitarianism, stating that actions are right if they promote happiness for the most people and wrong if they cause harm to a majority.

A form of utilitarianism that focuses on the consequences of individual actions, evaluating each situation separately.

A form of utilitarianism that emphasizes following rules that generally lead to the greatest happiness when consistently applied.

A moral philosophy that is based on reason and duty, emphasizing respect for individuals as ends in themselves, not means to an end.

The idea that moral actions should apply equally to everyone, regardless of their individual circumstances or desires.

The principle of treating people as ends in themselves, not as mere tools or means to achieve something else.

The idea that moral decisions should be based on reason and informed by universal principles, rather than personal feelings or desires.

A feeling of isolation, disconnection from the world, others, or oneself, stemming from the realization that the world lacks inherent meaning or purpose.

The recognition that life is ultimately meaningless and the universe is indifferent to human existence.

The belief that humans have the fundamental freedom to make choices and shape their lives. However, this freedom comes with the responsibility for the consequences of those choices.

An intense feeling of anxiety or dread arising from the realization of one's absolute freedom and the responsibility that comes with it.

A state of existential crisis where the absurdity of life and the lack of inherent meaning create a conflict with the human desire for meaning.

The belief that individuals must act in good faith, accepting responsibility for their choices and recognizing that their actions define their existence.

A state of being where individuals conform to external expectations and values instead of living authentically.

The process of creating meaning and purpose in life despite the inherent lack of meaning in the objective world.