Sociological Research Designs and Ethics

Sociology: A Brief Introduction 14e by Richard T. Schaefer

• The textbook is titled "Sociology: A Brief Introduction 14e" and authored by Richard T. Schaefer.
• Copyright is held by McGraw Hill LLC.
• The book focuses on learning that changes everything.

Chapter 2: Sociological Research

• This chapter investigates sociological research methods.
• The content covers the scientific method, research designs (surveys, ethnography, experiments, existing sources), ethical considerations, and how to write research reports.

Inside

• Topics within the chapter include the scientific method, major research designs, research ethics, feminist methodology, queer theory, data analysis, social policy studies of human sexuality, and data representation using graphs and statistics.
• Also included is the importance of writing a research report.

A Look Ahead

• Research questions include how sociologists design projects, techniques for reliable and accurate results, and conducting research ethically while respecting participants' rights.

What Is the Scientific Method?

• The scientific method is a systematic process for research characterized by objectivity and consistency.
• Five steps include problem definition, literature review, formulating a hypothesis, selecting and conducting research, and developing a conclusion.

Defining the Problem

• The first step in the research process is to define the issue with clarity.
• Operational definitions are used to explicitly define abstract variables.

Reviewing the Literature

• Reviewing scholarly articles refines the research problem, clarifies applicable research techniques, and helps avoid errors.

Formulating the Hypothesis

• A hypothesis describes the relationship between factors (variables).
• Independent variables are hypothesized to influence other variables (dependent variables).
• Causal logic describes variables' relationships where one leads to the other.
• Correlation shows variables' changes coinciding but does not imply causation.
• Sociologists aim to identify causal connections between variables.

Collecting and Analyzing Data:

• A sample represents a larger population for statistical analysis.
• A random sample gives each population member equal chance of selection.
• Snowball or convenience samples recruit participants through networks or online postings.
• Valid research consistently reflects the target phenomenon.
• Reliable research produces dependable results.

Developing the Conclusion

• The research conclusion signifies a starting point for further explorations.
• Sociological research might not support initial hypotheses, and control variables are factors kept constant.

The Scientific Method: An Example

• The example asks if higher education leads to higher income.
• Operational definitions for education and income are given.
• Literature reviewing existing studies on education and income is reviewed.
• A sample is determined to be representative and data are gathered being valid and reliable.
• The conclusion is that the data supports the hypothesis.

Major Research Designs

• Research design details a plan to obtain data scientifically.
• Designs frequently involve applying theories and hypotheses.
• Common designs include surveys, ethnography, experiments, and analyzing existing sources.

Surveys

• Surveys involve various data gathering methods: interviews (face-to-face, phone, or internet) and questionnaires (written or printed).
• Survey questions should consider social changes, and surveys are considered quantitative research.

Ethnography

• Ethnography involves comprehensive study of a social setting through prolonged fieldwork.
• Observation is a focus in ethnographic research and involves direct participant observation to gain a thorough understanding of how a group functions.
• Ethnographic studies frequently include interviews and the analysis of historical information.
• Research is challenging as sociologists need to maintain objectivity and detach from the group.

Experiments

• Experiments involve manipulating variables to study cause-and-effect relationships.
• An experimental group experiences the manipulated variable (independent variable).
• A control group does not receive this manipulation.
• The Hawthorne effect is an unintended influencing effect of having observers on study participants.

Use of Existing Sources

• Secondary analysis utilizes previously gathered data.
• This non-reactive approach studies existing data without influencing participants' behavior.
• Census data, crime statistics, or other publicly available datasets are frequently use.
• Content analysis involves coding and recording data according to a pre-defined rationale. Sources such as newspapers, diaries, or other documents can be subjected to content analysis.

Ethics of Research

• Codes of ethics lay out standards of acceptable professional practice.
• The American Sociological Association (ASA) code emphasizes objectivity, subject privacy, protecting subjects, preserving confidentiality, obtaining informed consent, acknowledging collaboration, and financial support disclosure.

Confidentiality

• Confidentiality involves keeping research data private and secret.
• The ASA supports the ethical stance of a researcher who refuses to disclose information gathered for research.

Conflict of Interest

• Accepting funds from entities that stand to benefit from research can influence results and raise objectivity concerns.
• Examples of conflict of interest situations are provided, such as private or governmental entities funding research.

Value Neutrality

• Value neutrality focuses on objectivity in data interpretation.
• Researchers should accept research findings irrespective of personal bias.

Feminist Methodology

• The feminist perspective greatly influenced social research methods.
• The work and family are closely linked.
• Victimization and self-harm.
• There is a tendency to involve research subjects more frequently.
• The feminist paradigm emphasizes influencing policy and raising awareness of social issues.
• It embraces a multi-disciplinary approach.

Queer Theory and Methodology

• Queer theory examines whether researchers acknowledge and consider gay/lesbian communities' experiences and behaviors in their studies to avoid faulty generalizations.
• A "veiled reporting" technique, which aims at encouraging honesty when answering sensitive questions, is suggested.

The Data-Rich Future

• Large-scale data sets offer potential for social research, enabling in-depth program evaluation.
• This was shown with a hypothetical study concerning the effectiveness of social intervention programs in preventing behavioral problems relating to prison or jail and their children.
• The data did not reveal a straightforward cause-and-effect relationship.

Social Policy and Sociological Research: Studying Human Sexuality

• This section addresses human sexuality as a complex social policy subject.
• Ethical considerations, societal views, privacy concerns, previous biases, and opposition to the research are mentioned as potential issues.
• The study of human sexuality relies heavily upon data from government support and funding.
• The National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS) study was mentioned

Writing a Research Report

• Steps for information gathering are highlighted: consulting textbooks, library databases, examining documents, contacting related organizations, and contacting the instructor/librarian.
• Internet research should be handled carefully as a significant portion of internet data can be inaccurate.
• Recommended report-writing tips, such as outlining and revisions, are noted.
• Note that references should be cited correctly.

Using Statistics and Graphs

• Basics of statistical concepts (percentage, mean, mode, median, cross tabulation) were mentioned in this book.
• Data presentation using graphs and tables help develop conclusions from research.

Explore research designs for sociological studies, including community cultural practices and program impact. Understand ethical considerations in research, such as data usage and participant protection, according to the ASA Code of Ethics. Topics include online sentiment analysis and ethics board reviews.