Social Science Research Methods

Ways of Knowing and Social Sciences

• Non-scientific ways of knowing include reliance on authority figures, personal experiences, common sense, and tradition.
• Limitations of non-scientific ways of knowing encompass the halo effect, confirmation bias, overgeneralization, and the subjective nature of common sense.
• Strengths of scientific research lie in its empirical basis, falsifiability, systematic approach, provisional nature, accumulative quality, and transparency.
• Social sciences include fields such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics, and political science.
• Challenges in social sciences are the Hawthorne effect and the reliability crisis.

Research Methods

• Experimental studies are strong for establishing causality but may lack ecological validity.
• Correlational studies identify relationships but cannot prove causation.
• Observational studies provide real-world insights but may have observer bias.
• Experimental research benefits from variable control and the ability to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
• The independent variable (IV) is manipulated by the researcher, while the dependent variable (DV) is the measured outcome.
• Self-fulfilling prophecy occurs when expectations influence behavior, causing the expectation to become true.

Evaluate & Interpret Information

• Positive correlation involves variables increasing together (e.g., study time and grades).
• Negative correlation involves one variable increasing while the other decreases (e.g., stress and sleep quality).
• Strong and weak correlations are determined by the correlation coefficient (r), which ranges from -1 to 1.
• Correlation does not imply causation, as third variables may influence the relationship.
• Scholarly sources are peer-reviewed and written by experts, while popular sources are for general audiences.
• Peer review ensures the quality, accuracy, and credibility of research.
• Trustworthy sources include peer-reviewed journals, government websites, and reputable organizations.
• Pie charts can mislead if slices are not clearly labeled.
• Bar graphs can exaggerate differences with skewed scales.
• Line graphs can mislead if axes are manipulated.

Psychology

• Internal attributions assign behavior to personal traits, while external attributions assign behavior to situational factors.
• The Fundamental Attribution Error overemphasizes internal factors and underestimates external factors when judging others.
• Self-serving bias involves taking credit for successes while blaming failures on external factors.
• Heuristics are mental shortcuts, such as the availability heuristic.
• Cognitive dissonance is mental discomfort from conflicting beliefs or behaviors (e.g., smoking despite knowing it is harmful).
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs includes physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization needs.
• The IAT test measures implicit biases.
• A schema is a mental framework for organizing information (e.g., a "dog" schema).
• In-group bias favors one’s own group.
• The outgroup homogeneity effect involves seeing members of other groups as similar.
• Realistic conflict theory states that competition over limited resources leads to conflict.
• Stereotype threat is the fear of confirming a negative stereotype, impairing performance.

Sociology

• A psychological perspective focuses on individual behavior, while a sociological perspective examines societal influences.
• A social problem affects many people and is rooted in societal structures, whereas a personal problem affects an individual.
• Institutional discrimination is systemic discrimination embedded in institutions.
• The sociological imagination connects individual experiences with larger societal forces.
• Durkheim’s suicide study found that social integration and regulation influence suicide rates.
• Functionalism views society as a system of interconnected parts.
• Conflict theory focuses on power struggles and inequality.
• Symbolic interactionism examines how individuals interact through symbols.
• Manifest functions are intended consequences, while latent functions are unintended consequences.
• Social dysfunction refers to negative consequences.