Social and Cross-Cultural Psychology Week 1-3
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Questions and Answers

What is the main topic of Lecture 1 in the course?

Introduction to Social and Cross-Cultural Psychology

What is the main focus of Week 2's lecture?

  • Social Cognition and Attribution (correct)
  • Aggression and Prosocial Behavior
  • Self and Interpersonal Attraction
  • Culture

    • Week 3 covers the topic of Attitudes and Attitude Change, with readings from chapters ______ and ______.

    5, 6

    Match the following lecture topics with their respective readings:

    <p>Social Influence and Language = Chapters 7 + 15 People in Groups and Leadership = Chapters 8 + 9 Prejudice and Intergroup Relations = Chapters 10 + 11 Aggression and Prosocial Behavior = Chapters 12 + 13</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Social psychology studies the relationship between individuals and their cultural backgrounds.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is social cognition?

    <p>Social cognition refers to cognitive processes and structures that influence and are influenced by social behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the four forms/models of cognitive focus in social psychology mentioned in the text?

    <p>Motivated tactician</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Impression formation and person perception are unimportant aspects of social cognition.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What influences impressions of other people according to the text?

    <p>Personality traits and specific pieces of information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Configural model, which traits play a disproportionate role in configuring the final impression?

    <p>Central traits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Primacy refers to an effect where earlier presented information has a disproportionate influence on social cognition.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are personal constructs in impression formation?

    <p>idiosyncratic and personal sets of bipolar dimensions used in forming impressions and characterizing people</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Humans tend to assume that physically attractive people are ____________.

    <p>good</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following with their descriptions:

    <p>Self-schemas = Schema about oneself stored in a complex way Role schemas = Knowledge structures about role occupants Categories = Discrete groups based on shared characteristics Prototypes = Cognitive representation of defining features of a category</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the definition of social psychology?

    <p>Social psychology is the scientific investigation of how the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals are influenced by the presence of others, whether actual, imagined, or implied.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which fields are considered close scientific neighbors of social psychology?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Social psychology primarily focuses on studying human behavior in isolation.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Experimentation involves the manipulation of one or more independent variables and the measuring of its effects on one or more ________ variables.

    <p>dependent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following famous social psychology experiments with their descriptions:

    <p>Muzafer Sherif (1935) = Experiment on norm formation Solomon Asch (1951) = Demonstrated the effect of group pressure regarding confirmation Stanley Milgram (1963) = Studied destructive obedience Henry Tajfel (1970) = Showed that group categorization can lead to intergroup discrimination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the automatic, unconscious scanning of the environment?

    <p>pre-attentive analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following are reasons why people can be salient?

    <p>Novel or figural in the context</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Vivid stimuli are emotionally attention-grabbing, graphic, and image-provoking.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Accessibility directs attention based on _____ rather than the stimulus' properties.

    <p>accessibility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following attribution theories with their descriptions:

    <p>Naive Psychologist Theory = Characterizes people as using rational, scientific-like cause-effect analyses Correspondent Inference Theory = Involves drawing on five sources of information to draw correspondent inferences Covariation Model = Uses consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus to attribute behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the inflated tendency to see behavior as reflecting stable underlying personality traits?

    <p>Correspondence bias</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the fundamental attribution error, do people tend to attribute behavior more to internal or situational causes?

    <p>Internal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for considering behavior to reflect underlying and immutable essences of people or the groups they belong to?

    <p>Essentialism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Is the actor-observer effect the tendency to attribute our behavior externally and others' behavior internally?

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The false consensus effect involves seeing our behavior as more _______ than it is.

    <p>typical</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the study of interpersonal distance?

    <p>Proxemics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Deindividuation can lead to decreased personal responsibility.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ______ is the physical space around one's body, treated as part of themselves.

    <p>Personal space</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the attachment style with its characteristics:

    <p>Secure = - Trust in others</p> <ul> <li>Not worried about abandonment</li> <li>Easy to get close to others Avoidant = - Suppression of attachment needs</li> <li>Uncomfortable when close</li> <li>Getting close leads to nervousness Anxious = - Anxious that their desire for intimacy will not be reciprocated</li> <li>Wants to merge with the partner</li> </ul> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the 3 factors that influence relationship formation?

    <p>proximity, familiarity, physical attractiveness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the 2 factors that influence relationship maintenance?

    <p>similarity, reciprocity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the reinforcement-affect model based on?

    <p>Classical conditioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Equity theory defines a relationship as equitable when partners perceive the ratio of inputs to outcomes differently.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What theory suggests that individuals develop preferences for people and things associated with positive feelings and experiences, and avoid negative ones? The reinforcement-____ model.

    <p>affect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is compliance in social influence?

    <p>Compliance is a superficial, public, and transitory change in behavior and expressed attitudes in response to requests, coercion, or group pressure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two processes involved in the dual-process dependency model of social influence?

    <p>Dependency on others for information about reality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Language can influence the way individuals perceive and think about the world. (True/False)

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In speech accommodation theory, people change their speech style to ______ that of the other person.

    <p>match</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of meanings people use to intentionally communicate with their descriptions:

    <p>Representatives = Make a statement - specify how something is signified Directives = Give directions or orders Commissives = Make commitments or promises Expressives = Convey emotional or psychological states Declarations = State something, thereby making it true</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define implicit attitudes.

    <p>Attitudes that are unconsciously held and activated automatically in response to specific stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What criterion measures consistency between attitudes and behavior?

    <p>Multiple-act criterion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the theory of reasoned action, behavior is determined by intention, subjective norms, and attitudes.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the theory with its description:

    <p>Theory of Planned Behavior = Predicting behavior from attitudes is improved if one believes they have control over the behavior Protection Motivation Theory = Theory that helps understand how people respond to threats Elaboration-Likelihood Model = Central route for careful message processing, peripheral route when not attentive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ______________ attitudes have a strong influence on behavior and increase the attitude-behavior association.

    <p>Accessible</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which model consists of automatic thinking and controlled thinking processes?

    <p>Dual-Process model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Compliance refers to a deep and lasting change in behavior in response to external pressure.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is cognitive dissonance?

    <p>Unpleasant feeling that motivates the desire to reduce inconsistency among thoughts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which social influence defense provides additional arguments to support one's initial attitude?

    <p>Supporting defense</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Course Outline

    • The course consists of 9 lectures, covering various topics in social and cross-cultural psychology.
    • The lectures are divided into 6 weeks, with 1-2 lectures per week.

    Lecture Topics

    • Lecture 1: Introduction to Social and Cross-Cultural Psychology
    • Lecture 2: Social Cognition and Attribution
    • Lecture 3: Attitudes and Attitude Change
    • Lecture 4: Social Influence and Language
    • Lecture 5: Self and Interpersonal Attraction
    • Lecture 6: People in Groups and Leadership
    • Lecture 7: Prejudice and Intergroup Relations
    • Lecture 8: Aggression and Prosocial Behavior
    • Lecture 9: Culture

    Week Objectives

    • Week 1: Define social psychology, its relation to neighboring disciplines, basic methodology, and theoretical underpinnings.
    • Week 1: Define culture and cross-cultural psychology.

    What is Social Psychology?

    • Social psychology is a field of study that explores human behavior and mental processes in social contexts.
    • It is related to neighboring disciplines, including psychology, sociology, and anthropology.
    • The field employs basic methodology and theoretical underpinnings to understand human behavior.### Social Psychology
    • The scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the presence of others.
    • Studies human behavior, feelings, thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and goals.

    Research Methods

    • Uses the scientific method to study behavior.
    • Two types of scientific methods: experimental and non-experimental.
    • Experiments involve manipulating one or more independent variables and measuring their effects on one or more dependent variables.
    • Laboratory experiments are high in internal validity but low in external validity, while field experiments are high in external validity but low in internal validity.
    • Non-experimental methods include surveys, case studies, discourse analysis, and archival research.

    Research Ethics

    • Researchers must respect ethical guidelines, including protection from harm, right to privacy, deception, informed consent, and debriefing.
    • Physical and psychological harm must be avoided.
    • Collected data must be anonymous and confidential.
    • Informed consent must be obtained from participants.
    • Debriefing is necessary to explain the research question and speculations.

    Theories and Theorizing

    • A good theory should reveal the truth, describe specifics in terms of abstract principles, make an advance on existing theory, and be applicable to the real world.
    • Social psychology theories include social identity theory, behaviorism, cognitive psychology, social neuroscience, and evolutionary social psychology.
    • Theories are framed to generate hypotheses that can be tested empirically.

    Levels of Explanation

    • Levels of explanation include intrapersonal, interpersonal, positional, and ideological.
    • Reductionism involves explaining a phenomenon in terms of a lower level of analysis, which can lead to a loss of explanatory power.

    Historical Context

    • Social psychology has its roots in Europe but developed significantly in the United States after World War II.
    • Famous experiments include Triplett's experiment on social facilitation, Asch's experiment on group pressure, and Milgram's experiment on destructive obedience.
    • Famous programs include the Yale University attitude change program and the EASP (European Association of Social Psychology).

    Culture

    • Culture refers to patterns in social behavior, habits, traditions, social norms, and the organization of societies.
    • Cross-cultural psychology studies differences between cultures, while cultural psychology studies the influence of culture on social psychological processes.

    Social Cognition and Attribution

    • Social cognition involves forming impressions of people, including schemas, social categorization, heuristics, and social encoding.

    • Social encoding involves salience, vividness, accessibility, and priming.

    • Attribution theories include the study of biases and errors in attribution.### Social Psychology and Cognition

    • Thought and cognition are distinct concepts:

      • Thought refers to internal language and symbols we use, often conscious and aware of it.
      • Cognition is a broader mental processing that is mainly automatic, and we are unaware of it.

    Social Cognition

    • Social cognition refers to cognitive processes and structures that influence and are influenced by social behavior.
    • It is the dominant approach to explaining social behavior.

    Short History of Cognition in Social Psychology

    • Wilhelm Wundt used self-observation and introspection to study subjective experiences (cognition).
    • Behaviorism shifted to studying observable behavior as a response to observable stimuli in the environment (until ~1960).
    • By the 1960s, psychologists started to take interest in cognition again due to the limitations of behaviorism.
    • The development of computers allowed for the simulation of complex human cognitive processes.

    Models of Social Cognition

    • Cognitive Consistency: suggests that people try to reduce inconsistency among their cognitions because they find it unpleasant.
    • Naive Scientist: characterizes people as using rational, scientific-like, cause-effect analyses to understand their world.
    • Attribution: the process of assigning a cause to our own and others' behavior.
    • Cognitive Miser: characterizes people as using the least complex and demanding cognitions that produce generally adaptive behaviors.
    • Motivated Tactician: characterizes people as having multiple cognitive strategies available, which they choose among based on personal goals, motives, and needs.

    Social Neuroscience

    • The exploration of brain activity associated with social cognition, psychological processes, and phenomena.
    • It is the most recent development in social cognition.

    Forming Impressions of Other People

    • People usually use personality traits when describing others, and then use their impression of them for decision-making.
    • Impression formation and person perception are important aspects of social cognition.
    • Impressions are influenced by some pieces of information more than others.

    Configural Model

    • Solomon Asch's Gestalt-based model of impression formation, in which central traits play a disproportionate role in configuring the final impression.

    Biases in Forming Impressions

    • Primacy and Recency: order of presentation effects that influence social cognition.
    • Positivity and Negativity: people tend to make positive impressions of others when lacking information, but negative information weighs more than positive information.

    Personal Constructs and Implicit Personality Theories

    • Personal Constructs: idiosyncratic (individual) and personal sets of bipolar dimensions used in forming impressions and characterizing people.
    • Implicit Personality Theories: specific patterns and biases an individual uses when forming impressions based on a limited amount of initial information.

    Physical Appearance

    • Humans tend to assume that physically attractive people are good, and have an "interior, spiritual, moral beauty".
    • Physical attractiveness has a significant impact on affiliation, attraction, and love.

    Stereotypes

    • A shared and simplified evaluative image of a social group and its members, usually based on ethnicity, nationality, sex, race, and class.

    Social Judgeability

    • The perception of whether it is socially acceptable to judge a specific target.

    Social Schemas and Categories

    • Schema: a cognitive structure that represents knowledge about a concept or type of stimulus, including its attributes and the relations among those attributes.
    • Types of Schemas: person schemas, role schemas, scripts, and self-schemas.

    Categorization and Stereotyping

    • Stereotypes are often based on, or they create, clearly visible differences between groups.
    • Research has shown that stereotypes are slow to change, and they change in response to wide social changes.

    How We Use, Acquire, and Change Schemas

    • Using Schemas: people use subtypes, social stereotypes, and role schemas to form initial impressions.
    • Acquiring Schemas: schemas are constructed and modified from encounters with category instances.
    • Changing Schemas: schemas are resistant to change, but can be changed through bookkeeping, conversion, or subtyping.

    Social Encoding

    • The way in which external social stimuli are represented in the mind.
    • Four stages of encoding: pre-attentive analysis, focal attention, comprehension, and elaborative reasoning.

    Salience and Vividness

    • Salience: a property of a stimulus that makes it stand out in relation to other stimuli and attract attention.
    • Vividness: a natural property of a stimulus that makes it stand out and attract attention.

    Accessibility

    • Attention is often directed by accessibility and not the stimulus' properties.
    • Priming: the activation of accessible categories or schemas in memory that influence how we process new information.

    Social Inference

    • Social inference addresses inferential processes we use to identify, sample, and combine information to form impressions and make judgments.
    • There are two distinct ways to process social information: top-down deductive and bottom-up inductive.
    • Heuristics: cognitive shortcuts that provide adequately accurate inferences most of the time.

    Heuristics

    • Representativeness Heuristic: instances are assigned to categories or types on the basis of overall similarity or resemblance to the category.
    • Availability Heuristic: the frequency or likelihood of an event is based on how quickly instances or associations come to mind.
    • Anchoring and Adjustment: inferences are tied to initial standards or schemas.

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