Social and Cross-Cultural Psychology Session 1
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Questions and Answers

What data collection method involves individuals altering their performance due to the awareness of being observed?

Observational methods

In social psychology, what does the term 'demand characteristics' refer to?

Something about your design or behavior tells the participants what you are looking for

How does a quasi-experiment differ from a true randomized experiment?

  • Quasi-experiment involves random allocation of participants to conditions
  • Quasi-experiment has natural allocation of participants to conditions (correct)
  • Quasi-experiment requires informed consent from participants

    • Which group in an experiment is NOT exposed to specific stimuli or conditions being tested?

    <p>Control group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of study involves measuring associations that individuals are not consciously aware of?

    <p>Implicit Measures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In social psychology, what refers to the constructs and hypotheses that theories offer?

    <p>Constructs, hypotheses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of processing is more persistent over time and forms strong attitudes that are resistant to counterattitudinal appeal?

    <p>systematic processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is counter-attitudinal behavior defined as?

    <p>behavior (usually induced by monetary incentives or threats) that is inconsistent with the actor’s attitude or beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is correct regarding cognitive dissonance theory?

    <p>Dissonance motivates individuals to reduce dissonance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Festinger's experiment studying cognitive dissonance, which participants experienced the most dissonance?

    <p>those who were offered 1€</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Systematic processing relies on effort.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Covariation Model, what is needed to conclude that Laura is smart (entity attribution)?

    <p>High consensus, High consistency, High distinctiveness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Correspondent Inference Theory analyze in order to determine the actor's intention?

    <p>The range of behavioral options available to the actor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do internal, uncontrollable, and stable causes impact a person's reaction to failure according to the Theory of achievement-related attribution?

    <p>They may lead to feelings of incompetence and discourage further efforts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain the Two-Factor Theory of Emotion.

    <p>Emotions depend on attributions made for bodily feelings rather than the feelings themselves.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What bias is characterized by attributing behaviors of others to their personality?

    <p>Correspondence bias</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Based on the Actor-observer effect, how may you and your students explain your behavior as a new teacher?

    <p>You may attribute it to nervousness, while students may perceive it as shyness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How would self-serving bias explain success in a job interview and failure in cooking dinner?

    <p>Success attributed internally to competence, failure attributed externally to distractions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the definition of the 'Ideal self'?

    <p>The ideal self contains our wishes and aspirations that motivate us to work actively to attain them.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define the 'Ought self'.

    <p>The ought self motivates us to fulfill duties and obligations to avoid negative outcomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following cultures emphasize autonomy and individualism in the self-concept?

    <p>Western individualist cultures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following self-knowledge types with their descriptions:

    <p>Self-schema = Cognitive representation in the self-concept Self-esteem = Affective evaluations of the self</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Self-enhancing illusions are positive _________ of the self.

    <p>illusions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Self-handicapping refers to engaging in self-defeating behaviors to provide excuses for failure.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Sociometer Theory, what does our self-esteem signal?

    <p>Our level of acceptance or rejection by other members of our social group.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What theory suggests that we want to maintain high self-esteem to distance ourselves from the fear of death?

    <p>Terror-Management Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the 'Self-Verification Motive'?

    <p>The motivation to affirm our firmly held beliefs about ourselves for stable self-views.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Multicomponent Model of Attitude, attitudes are summary evaluations that have cognitive, affective, and ________ antecedents.

    <p>Behavioral</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define consistency as mentioned in the text.

    <p>The need for the minority to respond with the same response to the same issue over time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Conversion theory, how does the majority typically react?

    <p>Comparison with self-group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Group Polarization refers to making decisions that are less extreme than the group's initial positions.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain Groupthink as described in the text.

    <p>Groupthink is a syndrome of poor group decision-making where members seek unanimity over a realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Obedience to authority involves complying with orders from a person of higher social status within a defined hierarchy or chain of command, showing immediacy to the authority figure and recognizing their ________.

    <p>legitimacy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Milgram Experiment known for?

    <p>Demonstrating obedience to authority through participants' willingness to harm others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the representativeness heuristic?

    <p>Placing a person or object in a category based on similarity to a prototype</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the base rate information used for?

    <p>Determining how often certain categories appear in the general population</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the availability heuristic rely on?

    <p>People's ability to quickly recall information about an event</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is described by the Anchoring/Adjustment Heuristic?

    <p>Using a reference point to make decisions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Stereotype suppression can sometimes increase stereotyping behavior.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the concept that describes the automatic activation of a stereotype not necessarily leading to stereotypic responses?

    <p>Dissociation model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The act of trying to prevent an activated stereotype from impacting judgements is known as ____________ suppression.

    <p>stereotype</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following social psychology concepts with their descriptions:

    <p>Self-Reference Effect = Information related to oneself is processed more deeply, aiding better recall Working self-concept = Subset of self-knowledge that guides behavior in specific situations Attachment processes = Responsive caregiving leading to positive self-concept Social comparison = Process of evaluating oneself by comparing with others</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Attitudinal ambivalence can be best explained with which perspective?

    <p>A two-dimensional perspective</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Carla listens to the radio about 7 hours a day at work. Based on the 'mere exposure effect', how should Carla feel about the track of the week?

    <p>Positive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should Marta pay more attention to if she is having trouble finding a relation between attitude measures and behavior in her study?

    <p>the correspondence between attitudes and behavioral measures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When do attitudes predict behaviour? When there is correspondence between ____________ and behavioral measures.

    <p>attitudinal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which components are included in the multicomponent model of attitudes?

    <p>Cognitive, affective, behavioral</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is not going to induce heuristic processing?

    <p>Knowledge</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the method of making observations without the knowledge of those being observed?

    <p>Unobtrusive measures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of study does not involve random allocation to conditions?

    <p>Quasi experiment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of research focuses on textual and interpretative analysis?

    <p>Qualitative research</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Internal validity refers to the generalizability of a finding beyond the observed circumstances.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Observational methods are threatened by individuals altering their performance due to ____. (Fill in the blank)

    <p>Reactivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a group that does not see certain images called in a research context?

    <p>Control group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the three components of attitude in the ABC Model?

    <p>Cognitive, affective, and behavioral components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Mere Exposure Effect and how does it influence attitudes?

    <p>Increase in liking for an object due to being repeatedly exposed to it</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is self-handicapping?

    <p>The tendency to engage in self-defeating behaviors to provide an excuse for failure and enhance attributions in case of success</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the Sociometer Theory explain self-esteem?

    <p>It suggests that self-esteem signals the degree of acceptance or rejection by one's social group.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Lisa knows she is terrible at writing. When her teacher gives her a good grade, she may feel ______ and ______.

    <p>proud and satisfied</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following researchers with the behavior they studied:

    <p>Epley and Whitchurch (2008) = Identifying attractively enhanced photographs of own faces Vohs = Eating behavior of chronic dieters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Covariation Model, what do we need to conclude that Laura is actually smart (entity attribution)?

    <p>High consensus, High consistency, High distinctiveness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What theory suggests that observers consider the range of behavioral options available to an actor in order to work out the actor's intention?

    <p>Correspondent Inference Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Weiner's Theory of achievement-related attribution, how do inferences about the causes of success and failure affect future expectations, motivations, and emotions?

    <p>They directly affect future expectations, motivations, and emotions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the Two-Factor Theory of Emotion suggest that emotions depend on attributions?

    <p>Emotions depend on the attributions made for bodily feelings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Correspondence Bias also known as?

    <p>Attribution error</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Actor-observer effect?

    <p>Tendency to attribute our own behaviors externally and others' behaviors internally.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain the false consensus bias.

    <p>Assumption that other people share one's own attitudes, opinions, beliefs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Self-serving bias?

    <p>Tendency to attribute successes internally and failures externally.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of schemas in social cognition?

    <p>Mental structures to help organize and interpret information about behaviors, social roles, stereotypes, etc.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are cognitive heuristics and what do they allow people to do?

    <p>Mental shortcuts for making quick and efficient judgments.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What motivates individuals to reduce cognitive dissonance?

    <p>To reduce cognitive dissonance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Attitudinal ambivalence can be best explained with which perspective?

    <p>A two-dimensional perspective</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Based on the 'mere exposure effect', how should Carla feel about a track she hears multiple times daily?

    <p>Positive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should a researcher pay more attention to if there is trouble finding a relation between attitude measures and behavior?

    <p>The correspondence between attitudes and behavioral measures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which components are part of the multicomponent model of attitudes?

    <p>Cognitive, affective, behavioral</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following does not induce heuristic processing?

    <p>Knowledge</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one key characteristic of attitudes formed by systematic processing in persuasion?

    <p>More persistent over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about attitudes formed by non-systematic processing?

    <p>Tend to be relatively weak</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is counter-attitudinal behavior?

    <p>Behavior that is inconsistent with the actor's attitude or beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cognitive Dissonance Theory assumes that dissonance motivates individuals to reduce it by changing beliefs, attitudes, or behavior.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Festinger's classic experiment on Cognitive Dissonance, which participants experienced the most dissonance?

    <p>Those who were offered 1€</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Petty, Cacioppo et al.'s study on attitudes towards a new exam, which factor is likely to shape attitudes for highly personally relevant students?

    <p>Strength of arguments provided in combination with an expert source</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following phrases does not correctly describe systematic processing?

    <p>It is heuristic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Define consistency as explained in the content.

    <p>The need for the minority to respond with the same response to the same issue over time.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the concept of Conversion Theory related to?

    <p>Reacting differently in majority vs minority scenarios</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Explain the concept of Group Polarization.

    <p>Group Polarization is the tendency for a group to make decisions that are more extreme than the average of the group members’ initial positions, in alignment with the direction favored by the group.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Groupthink is characterized by members striving for unanimity at the expense of considering alternative courses of action.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does obedience to authority entail?

    <p>Complying with orders from a person of higher social status within a defined hierarchy or chain of command.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is Escalation of commitment in group dynamics?

    <p>Gradual increments in devotion or dedication to a particular course of action or decision.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the representativeness heuristic involve?

    <p>Placing a person or object in a category based on similarity to the prototype for that category</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is base rate information?

    <p>Information that gives an idea about how frequent certain categories are in the general population.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the availability heuristic allow individuals to do?

    <p>Draw conclusions based on how quickly information comes to mind about an event</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Anchoring/Adjustment Heuristic used for?

    <p>Serving as a reference point in decision-making</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Priming involve?

    <p>Activating schemas to prepare for specific actions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Stereotype Suppression phenomenon?

    <p>The act of trying to prevent an activated stereotype from influencing judgments about a person from a stereotyped group.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main concept behind Implicit goal operation in avoiding stereotypes?

    <p>Strong motivation to treat people as equals suppresses stereotypes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can stereotypic thoughts be replaced with egalitarian responses?

    <p>Automatic and controlled processes can be dissociated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'Availability Heuristic' refer to?

    <p>Drawing conclusions about event frequency based on how quickly information about the event comes to mind.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can one prevent stereotypes from influencing behavior?

    <p>Acting on implicit goals for egalitarian treatment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What concept aids better recall as related to the self?

    <p>Self-Reference Effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one aspect of Personal Sources for self-awareness?

    <p>Introspection - the process of observing internal states to understand behaviors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can individuals infer ambiguous inner states, as per Bem's self-perception theory?

    <p>By observing their own behaviors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Overjustification Effect?

    <p>Diminishing intrinsic motivation when activities are associated with external rewards.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Social and Cross-Cultural Psychology Session 1

    Research Methods in Social Psychology

    • True Social Psychology Experiment:
      • Constructs and hypotheses
      • Confederates
      • Unobtrusive measures (e.g. observing without the knowledge of those being observed)
      • Cover story
      • Post-Experimental Inquiry (asking participants what they think the study was about)
      • Informed Consent
      • Debriefing
    • Quasi experiment: no random allocation to conditions
    • Field study: e.g. Bystander effect (presence of others discourages individual intervention in an emergency situation)
    • Surveys
    • Qualitative research: textual and interpretative analysis (non-statistical)

    Validity of the Study

    • Internal validity: observed relationship between independent and dependent variables reflects a causal relationship
      • Threats: experimental confounds, social desirability, demand characteristics, experimenter expectancy
    • Construct validity: independent and dependent variables adequately capture constructs they represent
      • Threats: social desirability, demand characteristics, experimenter expectancy
    • External validity: generalizability of a finding beyond the circumstances in which it was observed
      • Threats: non-representative sample

    Data Collection Methods

    • Observational methods:
      • Threat: Reactivity (individuals alter their performance or behavior due to awareness of being observed)
    • Self-report
    • Implicit Measures: e.g. Measuring associations we are not aware of (IAT)
    • Physiological Measures: social neuroscience, measuring mental and brain function to study social cognition, emotion, and behavior

    Theories in Social Psychology

    • Offer propositions about the relation between constructs and hypotheses
    • Deriving hypotheses from previous experimental findings or variables

    Bystander Effect

    • Darley and Batson (1973) researched the bystander effect in a field study, testing the idea that bystanders might not come to assistance because helping is time-costly
    • Findings: helping was significantly influenced by time pressure manipulation

    Social Perception

    • Collecting and interpreting information about another person's individual character
    • How do we form impressions of what other people are like?
    • Asch (1946):
      • Person A: Intelligent, Skillful, Industrious, Determined, Practical, Warm
      • Person B: Intelligent, Skillful, Industrious, Determined, Practical, Cold
    • Warm/Cold traits: central traits that influence overall interpretation of a person's personality
    • Peripheral traits: traits whose perceived presence does not significantly change the overall interpretation of a person's personality

    Attribution Theories

    • Describe the process whereby social perceivers arrive at conclusions about the causes of another person's behavior
    • Kelly's Covariation Model:
      • Consensus (across people)
      • Consistency (across situations)
      • Distinctiveness (across objects)
    • Attribution:
      • Person attribution
      • Context attribution
      • Entity attribution
      • Person-Object interaction attribution

    Correspondent Inference Theory

    • Jones & Davis (1965): observers consider the range of behavioral options available to the actor at the time of making a decision in order to work out the actor's intention
    • Uncommon effects: behavior that is not commonly displayed
    • Weiner (1979, 1985): inferences about the causes of our success and failure directly affect future expectations, motivations, and emotions
    • Internal (about me) vs. External (about the circumstances)
    • Stable vs. Unstable
    • Controllable vs. Uncontrollable

    Biases

    • Correspondence bias (attribution error): tendency to attribute behavior of others to their personality
    • Actor-observer effect: tendency to attribute our own behaviors externally and others' behaviors internally
    • Self-serving bias: tendency to attribute our successes internally and our failures externally
    • False consensus bias: assumption that other people generally share one's own personal attitudes, opinions, beliefs### Actor-Observer Effect
    • Tendency to attribute our own behaviors externally and others' behaviors internally
    • Example: As a new teacher, you sweat and stutter in class, attributing it to nerves on your first day, while students attribute it to your personality (shy person)

    Self-Serving Bias

    • Attributing successes internally and failures externally to protect self-esteem
    • Examples:
      • Job interview went well because you are competent
      • Dinner tasted bad because you were distracted by good news about your new job

    Social Cognition

    • How we make sense of ourselves and others in our world
    • Dual-processing theories:
      • Automatic Process: unintentional, effortless, and outside of conscious awareness
      • Controlled Processing: intentional, effortful, and conscious

    Schemas

    • Mental structures that help organize and interpret information about behaviors, social roles, and people
    • Formed through experience and socialization
    • Examples:
      • You know what to do in a restaurant
      • You assume a skinhead running towards a man will cause trouble

    Cognitive Heuristics

    • Mental shortcuts for quick and efficient judgments
    • Examples:
      • Representativeness Heuristic: judging likelihood based on similarity to a prototype
        • John is a nerd, so he probably studies physics
      • Base Rate Information: considering frequency of categories in the general population
        • There are more communication students than physics students
      • Availability Heuristic: judging frequency based on ease of recall
        • My uncle smokes 4 packs a day and is 97, so smoking can't be that bad
      • Anchoring/Adjustment Heuristic: using an initial value as a reference point
        • Real estate agent says the average house price is £300,000, so you think the house is worth around that amount

    Priming

    • Exposure to one stimulus influences response to a subsequent stimulus
    • Activates schemas that prepare us for particular actions and social interactions
    • Not necessarily automatic, and effects may be complex

    Stereotype Suppression

    • Trying to prevent an activated stereotype from impacting judgments
    • Ironic Processes of Mental Control Model: suppressing stereotypes can actually increase them

    Goal-Dependent Automaticity

    • When goals to treat people equally override stereotype activation
    • Strong motivation to not be racist can suppress racist stereotypes

    Dissociation Model

    • Automatic and controlled processes may be dissociated
    • Commitment to non-prejudiced responding can lead to self-focus and effort to reduce discrepancy

    Social Perception and Behavior

    • The link between social perception and behavior is not inevitable
    • Behavioral control involves a battle between activated schemas, environmental cues, and internal goal states

    Heuristics and Biases Examples

    • Availability Heuristic: George thinks people are stopping eating meat because he knows 10 people who recently stopped
    • Anchoring: Charity donation example (£20)

    Stopping Stereotypes

    • Implicit goal operation: strong motivation to treat people equally overrides stereotype activation
    • Dissociation Model: commitment to non-prejudiced responding can lead to self-focus and effort to reduce discrepancy

    Academic Performance

    • Teachers' expectations can impact students' performance (Pygmalion effect)
    • Schemas and self-fulfilling prophecies influence behavior

    Mood and Heuristics

    • Good mood can lead to increased use of heuristics
    • Bad mood can lead to more thorough processing

    Self-Reference Effect

    • Information related to the self is processed more thoroughly and better recalled
    • Example: rating adjectives that describe you well

    The Self

    • Shaped by an active social construal process
    • Context-dependent and variable
    • Self-Reference Effect: better recall of information related to the self

    Introspection

    • Observing and examining internal states for behavior
    • People usually know what they feel and think, but not why

    Bem's Self-Perception Theory

    • Inferring internal states by observing behavior
    • Example: smiling and whistling after an exam, inferring relief
    • Overjustification effect: external rewards can diminish intrinsic motivation

    Social Sources of Self-Knowledge

    • Attachment processes: responsive caregiving leads to positive self-concept
    • Reflected appraisals: internalizing others' reactions towards us
    • Social comparison: evaluating oneself by comparing to others

    Working Self-Concept

    • Subset of self-knowledge activated in a given situation
    • Example: being a woman in a room full of men, or being a religious person in church

    Desired Selves

    • Contain potential, wishes, and duties
    • Ideal self: motivates us to actively achieve aspirations
    • Ought self: motivates us to avoid negative outcomes

    Independent vs. Interdependent Self-Concepts

    • Independent self: emphasizes autonomy, individualism, and internal attributes
    • Interdependent self: emphasizes connection to others and relationships

    Self-Knowledge Recap

    • Self-concept is a collection of self-experiences
    • Self-knowledge can be categorized into cognitive representation and affective evaluation
    • Cultures shape our self-concept and self-esteem
    • No specific "self-region" in the brain### Role of Self-Esteem
    • The Sociometer Theory suggests that self-esteem acts as a sociometer, tracking our social status and acceptance or rejection by others.
    • The Terror-Management Theory proposes that high self-esteem helps us distance ourselves from the fear of death.

    Low Self-Regard: Self-Verification

    • Self-Verification Motive: a motivation to affirm our firmly held beliefs about ourselves, even if they are negative.
    • Example: Lisa, who knows she's terrible at writing, feels unsettled and dissatisfied when given a good grade for her essay.

    The Regulatory Functions of the Self

    • Self-Regulation Theory: the process of controlling and directing one's behavior to achieve desired thoughts, feelings, and goals.
    • Steps involved:
      1. Adopting a standard.
      2. Directing attention to the self to monitor behavior.
      3. Changing behavior to match the standard.

    Ego Depletion

    • Ego depletion: a temporary reduction of self-regulatory capacities due to restricted energy resources after sustained self-control efforts.
    • Example: sticking to a diet all day, but exhausting willpower and ordering pizza for dinner.

    Attitudes

    • Attitude: an overall evaluation of an object based on cognitive, affective, and behavioral information.
    • Attitudes differ in valence (positive or negative) and strength.

    Multicomponent Model of Attitude (ABC Model)

    • Cognitive component: beliefs, thoughts, and attributes associated with an object.
    • Affective component: feelings or emotions associated with an object.
    • Behavioral component: past behaviors associated with an object.

    The Mere Exposure Effect

    • The mere exposure effect: an increase in liking for an object as a result of being repeatedly exposed to it.
    • Example: liking a person more at the end of the year after seeing them repeatedly in a lecture hall.

    Models of Attitude-Behavior Relations

    • Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975):
      • Intention is the immediate predictor of behavior.
      • Two determinants of intentions: attitudes and subjective norms.
    • Theory of Planned Behavior: an extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action, including perceived behavioral control.
    • Implementation Intentions: "if-then" plans that specify a behavior, increasing the likelihood of behavior change.

    When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?

    • Attitudes predict behavior when:
      • There is correspondence between attitudinal and behavioral measures.
      • It depends on the domain of behavior.
      • It depends on the strength of the attitude.

    Attitudinal Ambivalence

    • Attitudinal ambivalence: a state that occurs when an individual both likes and dislikes an attitude object.
    • Example: liking the taste of chocolate cake, but disliking that it can lead to weight gain.

    Persuasion and Attitude Change

    • Persuasion: the use of communication to change the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of others.
    • Theories of Systematic Processing:
      • Information Processing Model (McGuire, 1969, 1985)
      • Cognitive Response Model (Greenwald)
      • Dual-Process Theory (including Heuristic-Systematic Model and Elaboration Likelihood Model)

    Social and Cross-Cultural Psychology Session 1

    Research Methods in Social Psychology

    • True Social Psychology Experiment:
      • Constructs and hypotheses
      • Confederates
      • Unobtrusive measures (e.g. observing without the knowledge of those being observed)
      • Cover story
      • Post-Experimental Inquiry (asking participants what they think the study was about)
      • Informed Consent
      • Debriefing
    • Quasi experiment: no random allocation to conditions
    • Field study: e.g. Bystander effect (presence of others discourages individual intervention in an emergency situation)
    • Surveys
    • Qualitative research: textual and interpretative analysis (non-statistical)

    Validity of the Study

    • Internal validity: observed relationship between independent and dependent variables reflects a causal relationship
      • Threats: experimental confounds, social desirability, demand characteristics, experimenter expectancy
    • Construct validity: independent and dependent variables adequately capture constructs they represent
      • Threats: social desirability, demand characteristics, experimenter expectancy
    • External validity: generalizability of a finding beyond the circumstances in which it was observed
      • Threats: non-representative sample

    Data Collection Methods

    • Observational methods:
      • Threat: Reactivity (individuals alter their performance or behavior due to awareness of being observed)
    • Self-report
    • Implicit Measures: e.g. Measuring associations we are not aware of (IAT)
    • Physiological Measures: social neuroscience, measuring mental and brain function to study social cognition, emotion, and behavior

    Theories in Social Psychology

    • Offer propositions about the relation between constructs and hypotheses
    • Deriving hypotheses from previous experimental findings or variables

    Bystander Effect

    • Darley and Batson (1973) researched the bystander effect in a field study, testing the idea that bystanders might not come to assistance because helping is time-costly
    • Findings: helping was significantly influenced by time pressure manipulation

    Social Perception

    • Collecting and interpreting information about another person's individual character
    • How do we form impressions of what other people are like?
    • Asch (1946):
      • Person A: Intelligent, Skillful, Industrious, Determined, Practical, Warm
      • Person B: Intelligent, Skillful, Industrious, Determined, Practical, Cold
    • Warm/Cold traits: central traits that influence overall interpretation of a person's personality
    • Peripheral traits: traits whose perceived presence does not significantly change the overall interpretation of a person's personality

    Attribution Theories

    • Describe the process whereby social perceivers arrive at conclusions about the causes of another person's behavior
    • Kelly's Covariation Model:
      • Consensus (across people)
      • Consistency (across situations)
      • Distinctiveness (across objects)
    • Attribution:
      • Person attribution
      • Context attribution
      • Entity attribution
      • Person-Object interaction attribution

    Correspondent Inference Theory

    • Jones & Davis (1965): observers consider the range of behavioral options available to the actor at the time of making a decision in order to work out the actor's intention
    • Uncommon effects: behavior that is not commonly displayed
    • Weiner (1979, 1985): inferences about the causes of our success and failure directly affect future expectations, motivations, and emotions
    • Internal (about me) vs. External (about the circumstances)
    • Stable vs. Unstable
    • Controllable vs. Uncontrollable

    Biases

    • Correspondence bias (attribution error): tendency to attribute behavior of others to their personality
    • Actor-observer effect: tendency to attribute our own behaviors externally and others' behaviors internally
    • Self-serving bias: tendency to attribute our successes internally and our failures externally
    • False consensus bias: assumption that other people generally share one's own personal attitudes, opinions, beliefs### Actor-Observer Effect
    • Tendency to attribute our own behaviors externally and others' behaviors internally
    • Example: As a new teacher, you sweat and stutter in class, attributing it to nerves on your first day, while students attribute it to your personality (shy person)

    Self-Serving Bias

    • Attributing successes internally and failures externally to protect self-esteem
    • Examples:
      • Job interview went well because you are competent
      • Dinner tasted bad because you were distracted by good news about your new job

    Social Cognition

    • How we make sense of ourselves and others in our world
    • Dual-processing theories:
      • Automatic Process: unintentional, effortless, and outside of conscious awareness
      • Controlled Processing: intentional, effortful, and conscious

    Schemas

    • Mental structures that help organize and interpret information about behaviors, social roles, and people
    • Formed through experience and socialization
    • Examples:
      • You know what to do in a restaurant
      • You assume a skinhead running towards a man will cause trouble

    Cognitive Heuristics

    • Mental shortcuts for quick and efficient judgments
    • Examples:
      • Representativeness Heuristic: judging likelihood based on similarity to a prototype
        • John is a nerd, so he probably studies physics
      • Base Rate Information: considering frequency of categories in the general population
        • There are more communication students than physics students
      • Availability Heuristic: judging frequency based on ease of recall
        • My uncle smokes 4 packs a day and is 97, so smoking can't be that bad
      • Anchoring/Adjustment Heuristic: using an initial value as a reference point
        • Real estate agent says the average house price is £300,000, so you think the house is worth around that amount

    Priming

    • Exposure to one stimulus influences response to a subsequent stimulus
    • Activates schemas that prepare us for particular actions and social interactions
    • Not necessarily automatic, and effects may be complex

    Stereotype Suppression

    • Trying to prevent an activated stereotype from impacting judgments
    • Ironic Processes of Mental Control Model: suppressing stereotypes can actually increase them

    Goal-Dependent Automaticity

    • When goals to treat people equally override stereotype activation
    • Strong motivation to not be racist can suppress racist stereotypes

    Dissociation Model

    • Automatic and controlled processes may be dissociated
    • Commitment to non-prejudiced responding can lead to self-focus and effort to reduce discrepancy

    Social Perception and Behavior

    • The link between social perception and behavior is not inevitable
    • Behavioral control involves a battle between activated schemas, environmental cues, and internal goal states

    Heuristics and Biases Examples

    • Availability Heuristic: George thinks people are stopping eating meat because he knows 10 people who recently stopped
    • Anchoring: Charity donation example (£20)

    Stopping Stereotypes

    • Implicit goal operation: strong motivation to treat people equally overrides stereotype activation
    • Dissociation Model: commitment to non-prejudiced responding can lead to self-focus and effort to reduce discrepancy

    Academic Performance

    • Teachers' expectations can impact students' performance (Pygmalion effect)
    • Schemas and self-fulfilling prophecies influence behavior

    Mood and Heuristics

    • Good mood can lead to increased use of heuristics
    • Bad mood can lead to more thorough processing

    Self-Reference Effect

    • Information related to the self is processed more thoroughly and better recalled
    • Example: rating adjectives that describe you well

    The Self

    • Shaped by an active social construal process
    • Context-dependent and variable
    • Self-Reference Effect: better recall of information related to the self

    Introspection

    • Observing and examining internal states for behavior
    • People usually know what they feel and think, but not why

    Bem's Self-Perception Theory

    • Inferring internal states by observing behavior
    • Example: smiling and whistling after an exam, inferring relief
    • Overjustification effect: external rewards can diminish intrinsic motivation

    Social Sources of Self-Knowledge

    • Attachment processes: responsive caregiving leads to positive self-concept
    • Reflected appraisals: internalizing others' reactions towards us
    • Social comparison: evaluating oneself by comparing to others

    Working Self-Concept

    • Subset of self-knowledge activated in a given situation
    • Example: being a woman in a room full of men, or being a religious person in church

    Desired Selves

    • Contain potential, wishes, and duties
    • Ideal self: motivates us to actively achieve aspirations
    • Ought self: motivates us to avoid negative outcomes

    Independent vs. Interdependent Self-Concepts

    • Independent self: emphasizes autonomy, individualism, and internal attributes
    • Interdependent self: emphasizes connection to others and relationships

    Self-Knowledge Recap

    • Self-concept is a collection of self-experiences
    • Self-knowledge can be categorized into cognitive representation and affective evaluation
    • Cultures shape our self-concept and self-esteem
    • No specific "self-region" in the brain### Role of Self-Esteem
    • The Sociometer Theory suggests that self-esteem acts as a sociometer, tracking our social status and acceptance or rejection by others.
    • The Terror-Management Theory proposes that high self-esteem helps us distance ourselves from the fear of death.

    Low Self-Regard: Self-Verification

    • Self-Verification Motive: a motivation to affirm our firmly held beliefs about ourselves, even if they are negative.
    • Example: Lisa, who knows she's terrible at writing, feels unsettled and dissatisfied when given a good grade for her essay.

    The Regulatory Functions of the Self

    • Self-Regulation Theory: the process of controlling and directing one's behavior to achieve desired thoughts, feelings, and goals.
    • Steps involved:
      1. Adopting a standard.
      2. Directing attention to the self to monitor behavior.
      3. Changing behavior to match the standard.

    Ego Depletion

    • Ego depletion: a temporary reduction of self-regulatory capacities due to restricted energy resources after sustained self-control efforts.
    • Example: sticking to a diet all day, but exhausting willpower and ordering pizza for dinner.

    Attitudes

    • Attitude: an overall evaluation of an object based on cognitive, affective, and behavioral information.
    • Attitudes differ in valence (positive or negative) and strength.

    Multicomponent Model of Attitude (ABC Model)

    • Cognitive component: beliefs, thoughts, and attributes associated with an object.
    • Affective component: feelings or emotions associated with an object.
    • Behavioral component: past behaviors associated with an object.

    The Mere Exposure Effect

    • The mere exposure effect: an increase in liking for an object as a result of being repeatedly exposed to it.
    • Example: liking a person more at the end of the year after seeing them repeatedly in a lecture hall.

    Models of Attitude-Behavior Relations

    • Theory of Reasoned Action (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975):
      • Intention is the immediate predictor of behavior.
      • Two determinants of intentions: attitudes and subjective norms.
    • Theory of Planned Behavior: an extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action, including perceived behavioral control.
    • Implementation Intentions: "if-then" plans that specify a behavior, increasing the likelihood of behavior change.

    When Do Attitudes Predict Behavior?

    • Attitudes predict behavior when:
      • There is correspondence between attitudinal and behavioral measures.
      • It depends on the domain of behavior.
      • It depends on the strength of the attitude.

    Attitudinal Ambivalence

    • Attitudinal ambivalence: a state that occurs when an individual both likes and dislikes an attitude object.
    • Example: liking the taste of chocolate cake, but disliking that it can lead to weight gain.

    Persuasion and Attitude Change

    • Persuasion: the use of communication to change the beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of others.
    • Theories of Systematic Processing:
      • Information Processing Model (McGuire, 1969, 1985)
      • Cognitive Response Model (Greenwald)
      • Dual-Process Theory (including Heuristic-Systematic Model and Elaboration Likelihood Model)

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    Description

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