Science Chapter on Matter and Mixtures
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary characteristic that defines matter?

  • Matter has mass and occupies space. (correct)
  • Matter is made of molecules only.
  • Matter can only exist in solid form.
  • Matter has no mass and does not occupy space.

    • Which of the following correctly identifies how many atoms of hydrogen combine with how many atoms of oxygen to form water?

  • 1 hydrogen and 1 oxygen
  • 1 hydrogen and 2 oxygen
  • 2 hydrogen and 1 oxygen (correct)
  • 2 hydrogen and 2 oxygen

    • According to the particle theory of matter, what happens to particles as temperature increases?

  • Particles combine to form larger molecules.
  • Particles move faster and have more spaces between them. (correct)
  • Particles slow down and become more tightly packed.
  • Particles attract each other more strongly.

    • How can mixtures be categorized according to their visibility?

    <p>As homogeneous or heterogeneous mixtures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can be stated about an alloy?

    <p>An alloy is a mixture of metals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes the physical property of malleability?

    <p>The ability to be bent or shaped without breaking.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of mixture is a double double coffee classified as?

    <p>Homogeneous mixture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following elements is symbolized by the letter 'O'?

    <p>Oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the consequences of tree harvesting on soil health?

    <p>Loss of nutrients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do natural fires contribute to ecosystems?

    <p>They sustain and regenerate ecosystems.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gas is considered the most important greenhouse gas responsible for trapping heat in the atmosphere?

    <p>Carbon dioxide (CO2)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a notable effect of climate change on global weather patterns?

    <p>Increased flooding and drought conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact does climate change have on Indigenous people?

    <p>Loss of cultural identity due to food scarcity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one proposed solution for combating climate change?

    <p>Promoting carbon taxes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major consequence of rising ocean temperatures due to climate change?

    <p>Declining fish populations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which activity contributes significantly to the production of greenhouse gases?

    <p>Burning fossil fuels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an expected impact of climate change specifically in Arctic regions?

    <p>Melting permafrost</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a local consequence of climate change affecting urban areas?

    <p>Extreme weather events and worsening air quality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the proper way to write H2O?

    <p>H2O</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which charge does Magnesium carry when combined with Fluorine?

    <p>+2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the formula for Sodium Chloride?

    <p>NaCl</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the breakdown of a metal due to reactions with environmental chemicals?

    <p>Corrosion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following prefixes represents the number 4?

    <p>Tetra</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a clue indicating a chemical change?

    <p>Physical state change without new substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes the physical property that determines the mass per unit volume of a substance?

    <p>Density</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which metals can have a +2 and +4 charge?

    <p>Lead</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gas constitutes the majority of Earth's atmosphere?

    <p>Nitrogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the atomic number of sodium (Na)?

    <p>11</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the atmosphere for life on Earth?

    <p>Blocks solar radiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many neutrons are present in sodium (Na)?

    <p>12</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of incomplete combustion of a fuel?

    <p>Formation of carbon monoxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the biosphere?

    <p>The locations supporting life within the Earth’s spheres</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If an atom gains electrons, what charge does it acquire?

    <p>-1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which combination describes what a community is?

    <p>Various populations in a defined area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about physical changes is true?

    <p>The substance involved remains the same</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following correctly states the maximum number of electrons in the third orbit?

    <p>18</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes a biotic component of an ecosystem?

    <p>Plant and animal life</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process called when steel is coated with zinc to prevent rusting?

    <p>Galvanizing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of compound is formed by the combination of a metal and a non-metal?

    <p>Ionic compound</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many protons are in a fluorine atom?

    <p>9</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following gases is considered pollution but is helpful in protecting the Earth from UV rays?

    <p>Ozone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which physical property would you use to identify a substance's unique freezing and boiling points?

    <p>Melting point</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the Gaia Hypothesis suggest?

    <p>The Earth can behave like a living organism.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is indicated when a charge is written as + or - without a number?

    <p>1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during combustion when oxygen supply is limited?

    <p>Production of soot</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a molecular compound consist of?

    <p>2.5</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What charge does Chlorine have?

    <p>-1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does adding salt to ice have at low temperatures?

    <p>Decreases the freezing point</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of an ionic compound?

    <p>C</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of formula results from the combination of two non-metals?

    <p>Molecular formula</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a neutral atom, the number of protons is equal to what?

    <p>11</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary product of complete combustion of methane?

    <p>Water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What kind of exception does water present compared to most substances when it freezes?

    <p>It expands and takes up more space</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many electrons does aluminum have based on its atomic number of 13?

    <p>13</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of particles are ions?

    <p>1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group on the periodic table contains elements with one electron in the outer shell?

    <p>1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of element primarily forms molecular elements?

    <p>2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many total electrons are shown in the Bohr diagram of fluorine?

    <p>9</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What charge does a sodium ion carry after losing an electron?

    <p>+1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the charge of a chloride ion after gaining an electron?

    <p>-1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sodium chloride is an example of which type of compound?

    <p>Ionic compound</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the suffix ‘-ide’ signify when naming ionic compounds?

    <p>It indicates a simple binary compound</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes the closest distance of stable electron arrangement achieved by atoms?

    <p>Octet rule</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately describes photosynthesis?

    <p>It converts carbon dioxide and water into sugar and oxygen using light energy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In molecular compounds, electrons are typically:

    <p>Shared</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following prefixes corresponds to the number four in molecular naming?

    <p>Tetra-</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of consumers in an ecosystem?

    <p>To consume other organisms for energy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a food chain, what is the function of primary consumers?

    <p>Consume producers for energy.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes an ionic bond?

    <p>Electrons are lost by one atom and gained by another.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does energy flow in an ecosystem according to the trophic levels?

    <p>Energy is lost as it moves up the trophic levels.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following molecular compound names is correctly formatted?

    <p>SO2 - sulfur dioxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are ecological pyramids primarily used to illustrate?

    <p>The relationships between different trophic levels.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the charge of a metal when it loses electrons?

    <p>Becomes positively charged</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes a molecular compound from an ionic compound?

    <p>Molecular compounds consist of shared electrons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best depicts a characteristic of herbivores?

    <p>They eat plants and other producers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant consequence of burning fossil fuels?

    <p>It accelerates the carbon cycle and increases atmospheric CO2 levels.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When naming molecular compounds, which prefix is used for two atoms?

    <p>Di-</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a correct chemical formula for the oxide of magnesium?

    <p>MgO</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between carnivores and omnivores?

    <p>Omnivores have a varied diet that includes both plants and animals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true about energy and matter cycles?

    <p>Energy is lost while matter is cycled and reused.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How is sodium typically represented when it forms an ion?

    <p>Na+</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organisms are referred to as producers in an ecosystem?

    <p>Organisms that synthesize their own food using photosynthesis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one example of how the nitrogen cycle is altered by human activity?

    <p>Overuse of fertilizers can lead to excess nitrates in water bodies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do food webs contribute to ecosystem stability?

    <p>They allow species to have multiple food sources.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of ecological pyramid illustrates the total mass of organisms at each trophic level?

    <p>Biomass pyramid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary cause of coral reef destruction?

    <p>Overfishing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which practice can enhance soil quality and reduce erosion?

    <p>Cover cropping</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is meant by 'dynamic equilibrium' in ecosystems?

    <p>Ecosystems are constantly changing but balanced.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a consequence of overhunting?

    <p>Disruption of food chains</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process called that follows a disturbance in an ecosystem?

    <p>Succession</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does climate change have on coral reefs?

    <p>Leads to acidification of oceans</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of a cultural service provided by ecosystems?

    <p>Ecotourism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does agroforestry benefit ecosystems?

    <p>Promotes interrelated growth of crops and trees</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does species richness refer to?

    <p>The number of species found in an area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is a contributor to the destruction of freshwater aquifers?

    <p>Intensive agriculture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a sustainable agricultural practice?

    <p>Excessive synthetic fertilizer use</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during secondary succession?

    <p>Regrowth when some life still exists</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do invasive species typically affect local ecosystems?

    <p>They compete with native species for resources.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major consequence of habitat destruction?

    <p>Extinction of species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes a species that may become threatened or endangered due to a combination of factors?

    <p>Special concern</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What describes species that spread aggressively and negatively impact their environment?

    <p>Invasive species</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method of controlling introduced species involves the use of pesticides?

    <p>Chemical control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a potential impact of acid precipitation on aquatic ecosystems?

    <p>Increased biodiversity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one method to clean up an oil spill?

    <p>Skimming/Vacuuming</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which practice involves removing all or most of the trees in a specific area?

    <p>Clear cutting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a direct contributor to global warming that accumulates in the atmosphere?

    <p>Carbon dioxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term is used for species that no longer exist in a particular area?

    <p>Extirpated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following pollutants is NOT typically produced by vehicles burning fossil fuels?

    <p>Ozone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which approach to pollution reduction directly removes sulphur from fuels?

    <p>Switching to low-sulfur fossil fuels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common environmental risk associated with pesticide use in controlling invasive species?

    <p>Pollution of air and soil</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does acidic groundwater have on soil health?

    <p>Dissolves beneficial metals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which species group is particularly affected by pollutants that lower water pH levels?

    <p>Aquatic organisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What term describes factors that restrict the size of a population?

    <p>Limiting factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT considered a biotic factor influencing ecosystems?

    <p>Temperature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the carrying capacity of an ecosystem?

    <p>The maximum population size a species can sustain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aquatic ecosystem type contains less than 1% salt concentration?

    <p>Freshwater ecosystem</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of symbiotic relationship exists when both organisms benefit?

    <p>Mutualism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one effect of deforestation on ecosystems?

    <p>Displacement of indigenous peoples</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can change the carrying capacity of an ecosystem?

    <p>Natural or human activities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the open ocean?

    <p>High nutrient levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which human activity is responsible for dispersing waste plastics in ecosystems?

    <p>Plastic production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of wetlands like bogs and marshes?

    <p>Nutrient-rich soils</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which biome is referred to as the area between low-tide and high-tide lines?

    <p>Intertidal zone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of competition occurs within the same species?

    <p>Intraspecific competition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ecosystem covers more than 70% of the Earth’s surface?

    <p>Marine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant consequence of overconsumption in human societies?

    <p>Increased waste production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant environmental consequence of not recycling products effectively?

    <p>Plastics will accumulate in oceans.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors is NOT considered in the sustainable product life cycle?

    <p>Employee salary structures.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common toxic element found in many consumer products?

    <p>Lead</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can lithium ion batteries create potential environmental hazards?

    <p>They often end up in landfills.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a negative impact of traditional battery types compared to lithium ion batteries?

    <p>Shorter lifespan</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which material is mentioned as a toxic compound often found in construction products?

    <p>Formaldehyde</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary by-product of hydrogen technology when combined with oxygen?

    <p>Water</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these is NOT a characteristic feature of lithium ion batteries?

    <p>Heavy weight</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are microplastics primarily a result of?

    <p>Plastic pollution failing to be recycled.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a crucial limitation for the further development of hydrogen technology?

    <p>Volatility of hydrogen gas.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are emerging sustainable building materials considered advantageous?

    <p>They require less training to install.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which compound is known to disrupt hormones and is commonly found in food can linings?

    <p>BPA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process is often responsible for releasing CO2 when producing hydrogen?

    <p>Extracting it from natural gas.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one effect of using unfair pay in the lifecycle of consumer products?

    <p>Products can be offered at lower prices.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of metals?

    <p>They have a shiny appearance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following elements is categorized as a noble gas?

    <p>Argon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines a compound?

    <p>A substance made of two or more different atoms chemically joined.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes non-metals?

    <p>They are primarily found in a gaseous state.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The elements in the same group of the periodic table typically have what in common?

    <p>They share similar physical and chemical properties.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a heavy metal?

    <p>Lead</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one property of alkali metals?

    <p>They are highly reactive.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the periodic table arrange elements?

    <p>By grouping elements with similar properties into columns.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did Democritus propose about atoms?

    <p>Atoms are always in motion and separated by void.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes metalloids from metals and non-metals?

    <p>Metalloids have properties of both metals and non-metals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which metallic element is used for light bulb filaments?

    <p>Tungsten</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What main conclusion can be drawn from the evolution of atomic theory?

    <p>New discoveries necessitate modifications of existing theories.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which group comprises very reactive elements that can form compounds with alkali metals?

    <p>Halogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is NOT listed as responsible for the development of technologies?

    <p>Consumer demand</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary goal of alchemists during their experiments?

    <p>To create gold from inexpensive metals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which scientist introduced the modern definition of an element as a pure substance that cannot be chemically broken down?

    <p>Robert Boyle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was John Dalton's contribution to atomic theory?

    <p>Developed the billiard ball model of atoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did the gold foil experiment conducted by Ernest Rutherford reveal?

    <p>The nucleus contains a dense positive charge</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did James Chadwick discover about atomic structure?

    <p>Neutral particles called neutrons exist in the nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Electrons in an atom can jump to higher energy levels when they absorb energy. What is the state called when they are in this elevated position?

    <p>Excited state</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the atomic number of an element based on?

    <p>The number of protons in an atom's nucleus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can the number of neutrons in an atom be calculated?

    <p>By using the formula: Atomic mass - Atomic number</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What did J.J. Thomson's 'plum pudding' model propose about the structure of an atom?

    <p>Electrons are embedded in a positively charged cloud</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What unique feature differentiates electrons from protons and neutrons?

    <p>Electrons have a negative charge</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements is true about an atom in its ground state?

    <p>Electrons are at their lowest energy configuration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when electrons return to their ground state from an excited state?

    <p>They release energy in the form of light</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What model of the atom did Nagaoka propose after J.J. Thomson?

    <p>That electrons orbit the positive nucleus like Saturn's rings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The periodic table of elements is organized by which numerical value?

    <p>Atomic number</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Matter and Atoms

    • Matter is anything with mass that occupies space.
    • Atoms are tiny particles that make up all matter.
    • Molecules are formed when atoms bond together.
    • Elements are different kinds of atoms, each having a unique symbol (e.g., Hydrogen – H, Oxygen – O).
    • The periodic table organizes elements.
    • Water (H₂O) is a molecule formed by two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom.
    • The particle theory describes matter as tiny particles with spaces, constant motion, and attraction depending on state (solid, liquid, gas).

    Particle Theory

    • All matter consists of tiny particles.
    • Different substances have different kinds of particles.
    • Particles are always in motion.
    • Particle speed increases with temperature.
    • Particles attract each other, stronger in solids than liquids or gases.
    • Gases are easily compressed due to the large spaces between particles.

    Classification of Matter

    • Pure substances are either elements (single atom type) or compounds (multiple atoms combined).
    • Mixtures can be homogeneous (uniform composition, like coffee) or heterogeneous (distinct parts, like soup).
    • Alloys are mixtures of metals (homogeneous). Brass (zinc + copper) and stainless steel (iron + other metals) are examples.

    Properties of Matter

    • Physical properties describe a substance's characteristics (measurable, like color, boiling point).
    • Chemical properties describe a substance's behavior when it changes into a new substance.
    • Examples of physical properties*: states of matter, hardness, malleability, ductility, melting/boiling points, crystal form, solubility and viscosity.
    • Examples of chemical properties*: combustibility, reaction with acid.
    • Matter is classified into metals and nonmetals.

    Physical vs. Chemical Changes

    • Physical changes do not alter the substance's identity. Dissolving is a physical change.
    • Clues for physical changes*: no new color, no heat/light, no gas bubbles, no solid formation, and reversible.
    • Chemical changes create new substances with different properties.
    • Clues for chemical changes*: new color, heat/light given off, bubbles (gas produced), solid (precipitate forms), and difficult to reverse.

    Combustion

    • Combustion is the rapid reaction of a fuel with oxygen forming oxides and energy.
    • Complete combustion (abundant oxygen) produces carbon dioxide, water, and energy.
    • Example (equation):* CH₄ + 2O₂ → CO₂ + 2H₂O + energy
    • Incomplete combustion (limited oxygen) produces carbon monoxide (CO), carbon (soot), water, and energy, causing pollution and is dangerous.
    • Example (equation):* CH₄ + O₂ → CO₂ + H₂O + CO + C + energy

    Corrosion

    • Corrosion is breakdown of a metal (often from reacting with oxygen).
    • Beneficial corrosion forms protective oxide layers (e.g., aluminum, copper).
    • Iron rusts rapidly in water and with electrolytes (like salt).
    • Corrosion prevention includes protective coatings and corrosion-resistant materials.

    Gases in the Atmosphere

    • Air is a mixture of gases, primarily Nitrogen (78%) and Oxygen (21%).
    • Argon (Ar), ozone (O₃), carbon monoxide (CO), and carbon dioxide (CO₂) are also present.
    • Ozone protects from harmful UV rays in the upper atmosphere but is harmful in the lower atmosphere.
    • CO is highly toxic and produced by incomplete combustion.
    • CO₂ contributes to global warming.

    Physical Properties for Identification

    • Physical properties, like density, melting point, freezing point and boiling point are unique and can be used to identify substances.
    • Density is the ratio of mass to volume.
    • Freezing/melting/boiling points depend on the substance's composition and structure.

    Unusual Water Behavior

    • Water expands when it freezes, making it less dense than liquid water.

    Life Cycle of Consumer Products

    • Product life cycles affect the environment.
    • Sustainability means minimizing negative impacts.
    • Costs include examples like underpaying employees, greenhouse gas emissions and plastic pollution.*

    Emerging Chemical Technologies

    • Lithium-ion batteries and new building materials are examples.
    • Note that there are toxic chemicals involved in some technologies, along with human rights issues with extraction of some of these elements, like cobalt*
    • Examples of hydrogen technologies are being developed which are carbon-neutral and may prevent climate change, but currently still require an expensive infrastructure.

    Periodic Table

    • Elements are pure substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances.
    • Element symbols use a capital letter followed by lowercase letters if needed.
    • Compounds are combinations of different types of elements.
    • Metals are located on the left and center of the periodic table, they are usually solid and shiny.
    • Nonmetals are located on the right side of the periodic table, they can be solid, liquid or gas and they are usually dull.
    • Metalloids have properties of both metals and nonmetals.
    • Alkali metals are reactive metals found in the first column.
    • Alkaline Earth metals are reactive metals found in the second column.
    • Noble gases are unreactive and located in the right column.
    • Halogens are reactive nonmetals found in the second-to-last column.
    • Hydrogen does not fit neatly into these groups.

    Theories of Atom

    • Early theories proposed matter was composed of four elements (Empedocles) or indivisible atoms (Democritus).
    • Aristotle's more popular theory led to a delay in acceptance of the Atom model.
    • Modern conceptions of elements, which define elements, were not completely agreed upon until more modern times.
    • Dalton's atomic theory (billiard ball model) proposed indivisible atoms and that atoms could rearrange and not be created or destroyed.
    • Thomson's plum pudding and Nagaoka models proposed electrons within a positive charge cloud.
    • Rutherford's gold foil experiment showed a dense nucleus (positive) and empty space.
    • Bohr's model showed electrons orbiting around the nucleus.
    • Chadwick later discovered neutrons in the nucleus.

    ###Producing Light

    • Atoms emit light when electrons move to higher and then lower energy levels.
    • Different electron arrangements in atoms result in different colors.

    ###Structure of the Atom

    • Atoms consist of electrons, protons (positive), and neutrons.
    • Atomic number is the number of protons.
    • Atomic mass is the number of protons plus neutrons.
    • Number of electrons equals the number of protons in neutral atoms.

    ###Standard Atomic Notation

    • Standard atomic notation shows the element symbol, atomic number, atomic mass, and charge (if any).
    • The charge, if any, is written as a superscript

    ###Bohr Diagrams

    • Bohr diagrams show electron positions in orbits around the nucleus.
    • The first orbit holds a maximum of 2 electrons.
    • Subsequent orbits hold a maximum of 8 electrons.

    ###Atomic Charges

    • Atoms can gain or lose electrons to become ions (charged atoms).

    ###How Atoms Combine

    • Atoms combine to become more stable.
    • Metals lose electrons, nonmetals gain electrons to achieve a filled outer orbit (octet rule).
    • Ionic bonds form from the attraction between oppositely charged ions.
    • Molecular compounds form from the sharing of electrons.

    ###Naming Compounds

    • Ionic compounds (metal + nonmetal) names end in "-ide" (e.g., NaCl = sodium chloride).
    • Molecular compounds (nonmetal + nonmetal) names use prefixes to indicate the number of each atom (e.g., CO₂ = carbon dioxide).

    ###Writing Formulas

    • To write formulas, know the charges of atoms.
    • Ionic compounds have a zero overall charge.
    • Molecular compounds use prefixes to indicate the number of atoms in the formula.

    ###Writing Formulas with Charges

    • Some metals have multiple possible charges. This is written using Roman numerals in the compound name (modern) or using "-ous" and "-ic" endings (older). Copper forms two compounds: Cu₂O (copper(I) or cuprous oxide), CuO (copper(II) or cupric oxide).

    ###Biology

    ###Spheres of Earth

    • Atmosphere: gaseous layer moderating temperatures.
    • Lithosphere: rocky outer shell (crust).
    • Hydrosphere: all water on Earth (oceans, lakes etc...).
    • Biosphere: regions where life exists within these spheres.

    ###Gaia Hypothesis

    • Earth acts like a living organism, maintaining conditions for life.

    ###Ecosystems

    • Ecosystem is a complex environment involving living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic) features.
    • Populations: individuals of a species.
    • Communities: all populations in an area.
    • Sustainability: maintaining ecological balance.

    ###Energy Flow

    • Sun is the primary source of energy for most life.
    • Photosynthesis: light energy converted to chemical energy (sugar). Producers such as plants carry out this process.
    • Cellular respiration: chemical energy (sugar) converted to usable energy for life.
    • Food webs: show the feeding relationships in a community.
    • Trophic levels: organisms' feeding positions in a food chain or web (producers, herbivores, carnivores, etc).

    ###Cycling of Matter

    • Water cycle involves evaporation, precipitation, and transpiration.
    • Carbon cycle involves photosynthesis, respiration, and combustion.
    • Nitrogen cycle involves nitrogen fixation and the recycling of nitrogen.

    ###Influences on Ecosystems

    • Limiting factors restrict population size.
    • Abiotic factors (temperature, light) influence where species live and their tolerance range (and thus the size of their population).
    • Biotic factors (competition, predation) influence population size.
    • Carrying capacity is the maximum population size for a given ecosystem.

    ###Aquatic Ecosystems

    • Freshwater (less than 1% salt) and Marine (about 3% salt).
    • Wetlands are nutrient-rich freshwater areas.
    • Watersheds drain into rivers and lakes, and can be easily polluted.
    • In marine ecosystems, coral reefs support a wide variety of life but these are under increasing pressures with pollution and climate change.

    ###Human Activities and Ecosystem Impacts

    • Various human activities have negative impacts on ecosystems (agriculture, deforestation, overconsumption, pollution, greenhouse gases, destruction of reefs and freshwater aquifers).

    ###Sustainable Practices

    • Sustainable practices aim at minimizing these impacts and promoting biodiversity.
    • Examples include: reducing pollution, utilizing renewable resources, planting trees, implementing better farming practices*

    ###Ecosystem Services

    • Ecosystems provide various cultural, products and other services to humans.
    • Cultural services: recreational, aesthetic, and spiritual experiences. Ecotourism.
    • Ecosystem products: hunted animals, harvested plants, forestry etc. .
    • Other services: soil protection, absorbing excess water.
    • Monetary value of these ecosystem services is often high (cleaning air, moderating climate, providing resources).

    ###Equilibrium and Disturbances

    • Ecosystems are usually in a state of dynamic equilibrium (relatively constant conditions).
    • Succession: process of recovering after a disturbance (primary and secondary succession). Ecological succession allows for long-term sustainability.

    ###Biodiversity

    • Biodiversity is the variety of life in an area.
    • Species richness (number of species).
    • Extinction: loss of species.
    • Non-native species sometimes become invasive.
    • Controlling invasive species (chemical, mechanical, biological).

    ###Issues (Pollution and Acid Precipitation)

    • Pollution (oil spills, plastics) harm ecosystems, requiring cleanup methods like skimming, bioremediation and dispersal agents.
    • Acid precipitation (from sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) harms aquatic life, soils, and forests. Mitigation involves using cleaner fuels.

    ###Resource Management (Forestry, Wildlife)

    • Forestry practices include clear cutting, shelterwood cutting, and selective cutting, with varying ecological impacts.
    • Wildlife management often involves regulated hunting.

    ###Climate Change

    • Global warming results from the greenhouse effect (trapping heat).
    • Greenhouse gases (CO2, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, water vapor), most significantly CO2 are being produced by human activities, including burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.
    • Climate change impacts include warmer temperatures, more severe storms, rising seas, and loss of species, affecting food security, health, and natural resources.

    ###Indigenous People

    • Climate change disproportionately impacts indigenous communities in terms of accessing food, water and traditional practices.

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    Test your knowledge on the characteristics of matter and the properties of mixtures. This quiz covers key concepts including the particle theory, elemental symbols, and the unique attributes of alloys and mixtures. Perfect for reinforcing understanding of fundamental science principles.

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