Chapter 4: Linguistic Varieties and Multilingual Nations

Questions and Answers

Which of the following statements about pidgins is TRUE regarding their grammatical structure?

They always maintain the inflectional morphology of the lexifier language

They have complex conjugations similar to their source languages

They simplify grammatical structures to the minimum necessary for communication (correct)

They have no recognizable grammar

In which context might a pidgin language become the preferred language of the home and be passed on to children?

When parents use it extensively in daily life and interethnic communication (correct)

In monolingual societies

When it is the official language of the country

Only when schools mandate its use

Which of the following is TRUE about the role of attitudes in the survival and promotion of creole languages?

Negative attitudes always lead to the extinction of creoles

Positive attitudes among speakers can contribute to the creole's vitality and official recognition (correct)

Attitudes have no impact on language survival

Only outsiders' attitudes affect the status of a creole

In the spread of standard languages, which social group typically influences the selection of certain linguistic forms as 'standard'?

The political, social, and economic elite Signup and view all the answers

What is one reason why pidgins and creoles might have similar features even if they develop independently in different regions?

Universal processes of language development and similar communicative needs Signup and view all the answers

What impact did European colonialism have on the emergence of pidgin and creole languages?

It created contexts where pidgins and creoles flourished due to language contact Signup and view all the answers

Which feature of pidgins and creoles makes them particularly useful for linguists studying language universals and change?

Their rapid development and reflection of fundamental language processes Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the process where a creole changes towards the standard language?

Decreolisation Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the most colloquial variety in a person's linguistic repertoire within a monolingual community?

Vernacular Signup and view all the answers

Which language is used as a lingua franca by non-Indians in the Vaupés region when communicating with Indians?

Spanish or Portuguese Signup and view all the answers

What role does the need for a lingua franca play in the displacement of vernacular languages?

It contributes to the decline of vernacular languages Signup and view all the answers

In the context of linguistic varieties, which term refers to any language used for everyday interaction?

Vernacular Signup and view all the answers

What is the main purpose of the 1951 UNESCO report's definition of a vernacular language?

To define a vernacular as the first language of a socially or politically dominated group Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the 'outer-circle' varieties of English according to Kachru's model?

English used in countries where it serves as an additional language with significant functions Signup and view all the answers

Which language was promoted as Tanzania's national language due to its widespread use as a lingua franca?

Swahili Signup and view all the answers

What factor primarily accounts for the negative attitudes of outsiders toward pidgin and creole languages?

Their low social prestige and association with lower status groups Signup and view all the answers

In the history of Standard English, what was one key outcome of the establishment of the first language academy in Italy in 1582?

It led to the development of a standard Italian language Signup and view all the answers

What is a common misconception about pidgin languages among native speakers of the lexifier language?

Pidgins are debased forms of their own language and can be easily guessed or improvised Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a structural characteristic often found in pidgin languages?

Simplification of consonant clusters Signup and view all the answers

How does 'Singlish' differ from formal Singapore English?

It incorporates features from local languages and is used in informal settings Signup and view all the answers

What is one way creoles may develop new words to express additional meanings?

Through linguistic strategies like regularization and compounding Signup and view all the answers

Which language has been described as an example of 'vernacularisation' by extending its use from ritual to everyday communication?

Hebrew Signup and view all the answers

What term describes a pidgin that has evolved to fulfill the full range of communicative needs of a community?

Creole Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the Vaupés Indians, why do husbands and wives often speak different languages to each other?

Marriages are exogamous, and they maintain their own languages Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the lexifier language in pidgin and creole development is accurate?

It provides most of the vocabulary in the pidgin or creole Signup and view all the answers

Why might some creole-speaking communities not experience decreolisation?

Because they have rigid social barriers with little contact with the standard language Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of a 'standard' language regarding its recognition in a community?

It is recognized as a prestigious variety used for high functions Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a feature not typically associated with pidgin languages?

Use in formal administrative domains Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of print technology on language standardization, as seen in the case of English?

It helped codify and disseminate the standard dialect Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes languages that have developed under conditions of extreme social and political oppression?

Creoles Signup and view all the answers

Why might decreolisation not occur in a community where the lexifier language is not used or present?

Because decreolisation requires constant exposure to the standard language Signup and view all the answers

What is one reason creoles may gain official recognition and higher status in some countries?

For political reasons, to promote national identity Signup and view all the answers

In which way do standard languages and vernaculars differ primarily?

Social status and formality Signup and view all the answers

Which process involves the selection of particular forms and rules from a variety of existing options to codify a standard language?

Codification Signup and view all the answers

What term is used to describe an artificial language created for communication between speakers of different native languages?

Esperanto Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following reasons contributes to the development of 'New Englishes' in multilingual countries?

The use of English for specific local aspirations and identities Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the structural features of a creole language over time if it continues to develop independently from its lexifier language?

It may become indistinguishable from other established languages Signup and view all the answers

Why is the study of pidgins and creoles important for testing hypotheses about universal linguistic features?

Because they can be observed forming and changing rapidly Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best explains why Tok Pisin is used as a language of debate in the Papua New Guinea Parliament?

It serves as a unifying language among speakers of many different vernaculars Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the term 'mesolect' in the study of creole languages?

It indicates intermediate varieties between the basilect and the acrolect Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason over half the world's population becomes bilingual or multilingual?

They need different languages for daily interactions in various contexts Signup and view all the answers

Which term refers to a language that has not been standardized and lacks official status?

Vernacular Signup and view all the answers

What are the three components of the meaning of 'vernacular'?

Unstandardized, first language, limited functions Signup and view all the answers

In multilingual communities, what is typically the first language learned by individuals?

A vernacular language Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a way that the term 'vernacular' is used?

Indicating a language that has standardization and official status Signup and view all the answers

What typically distinguishes a standard language from other varieties?

It has undergone codification and is recognized as prestigious Signup and view all the answers

Which area provided the basis for what is now considered Standard British English?

The area within 60 miles of London Signup and view all the answers

What role did William Caxton play in the development of Standard English?

He set up the first English printing press and used the London dialect Signup and view all the answers

What is a 'lingua franca'?

A language used for communication between groups with different native languages Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a lingua franca used in the Vaupés region of the Amazon?

Tukano Signup and view all the answers

What is one reason pidgins often have a simplified structure?

They are used in restricted domains with limited functions Signup and view all the answers

In the context of pidgins and creoles, what is a 'lexifier' language?

The language that provides most of the vocabulary Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of pidgin languages?

They have simplified grammatical structures Signup and view all the answers

What is the process called when a pidgin becomes a creole?

Creolisation Signup and view all the answers

In Tok Pisin, how is the future tense often indicated after the process of creolisation?

By adding the prefix 'bai' to the verb Signup and view all the answers

What typically happens to a creole in a community where social barriers are not rigid?

It may undergo decreolisation towards the standard language Signup and view all the answers

What is a 'post-creole continuum'?

A spectrum of varieties between a creole and the standard language Signup and view all the answers

In the context of sociolinguistics, what does the term 'decreolisation' refer to?

The process of a creole language becoming more like the standard language Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of the three identifying characteristics of a pidgin language?

It is recognized as a prestigious variety Signup and view all the answers

How does societal need influence the development of creole languages?

It motivates the expansion of structure and vocabulary in creoles Signup and view all the answers

What is one way that creoles differ structurally from pidgins?

Creoles use affixes to signal grammatical relationships Signup and view all the answers

Which term refers to the variety of a language closest to the standard language in a post-creole continuum?

Acrolect Signup and view all the answers

What is the status of Haitian Creole in Haiti's diglossic situation?

It is the low (L) variety used alongside prestigious French Signup and view all the answers

Why might pidgin and creole languages be fascinating to linguists studying language development?

They offer insights into language change and universal linguistic features Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes 'creolisation'?

The expansion of a pidgin into a fully developed language Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'substrate' refer to in the context of pidgins and creoles?

The underlying languages that influence the grammatical structure Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about pidgin languages is TRUE?

Pidgins may become creoles when they acquire native speakers Signup and view all the answers

What is one reason people might have negative attitudes toward pidgin languages?

Pidgins are associated with informal and low-status contexts Signup and view all the answers

How does a 'vernacular' language differ from a 'lingua franca'?

A vernacular is the first language learned at home; a lingua franca is used for communication between different language speakers Signup and view all the answers

What typically happens to pidgins when the specific functions they serve disappear?

They die out and cease to be used Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a pidgin that has evolved into a creole?

Tok Pisin Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the social functions of a 'standard' language?

It is recognized as a prestigious variety and used for high functions Signup and view all the answers

How did the introduction of printing influence the development of Standard English?

It allowed for the codification and wider dissemination of the London dialect Signup and view all the answers

Why are pidgin languages often hard to understand for native speakers of their lexifier language?

They often change the meanings of words and have different syntax Signup and view all the answers

Which European language is NOT listed as a common lexifier language for pidgins and creoles?

Signup and view all the answers

What happens to a language in a rigid society?

It remains as a stable low (L) variety alongside a high (H) standard language Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic typical of pidgin languages?

High prestige and official status Signup and view all the answers

Why might a pidgin develop into a creole in the context of a plantation economy?

Children born on the plantation learn the pidgin as their first language Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best reflects attitudes of creole speakers towards their language?

They often have strong loyalty to it as an expression of their identity Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between 'inner-circle' and 'outer-circle' varieties of English?

Inner-circle varieties are used by monolingual speakers in countries like the USA and the UK Signup and view all the answers

What is 'code-switching' in sociolinguistic terms?

Alternating between languages or dialects in different contexts or within a conversation Signup and view all the answers

Why might vernacular languages have little written literature or formal codification?

They have been suppressed by dominant languages Signup and view all the answers

What is one way in which creoles can develop systematic ways of expressing grammatical tense?

Through the use of particles or affixes to indicate tense Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a fully developed creole that has been standardized and adopted as an official language?

Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea Signup and view all the answers

What impact does the need to express more complex meanings have on a pidgin language?

It leads to grammatical elaboration and expansion of vocabulary Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a language that was revived and developed as a national language through 'vernacularisation'?

Hebrew in Israel Signup and view all the answers

How do 'nativised' varieties of English, like Singlish, differ from standard English?

They have distinctive linguistic features influenced by local languages Signup and view all the answers

What term is used to describe the language habits of Mr. Patel, who uses multiple languages for different purposes?

Multilingualism Signup and view all the answers

What role did Caxton's printing press play in the linguistic landscape of England?

It helped stabilize and codify the London dialect as standard English Signup and view all the answers

Why might it be challenging for an English speaker to understand a pidgin based on English?

They have irregular and non-English grammatical structures Signup and view all the answers

What is a 'washman' in the context of the creole language discussed?

A man employed to do the washing Signup and view all the answers

Why is it significant that creoles can be indistinguishable from other languages in terms of linguistic structure?

It suggests that all languages may have undergone similar processes Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the reasons pidgins might disappear?

The functions they serve are no longer needed Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'expanding circle' in Kachru's model of World Englishes?

Countries where English is learned as a foreign language for specific purposes Signup and view all the answers

How might the presence of a 'post-creole continuum' affect language education policies?

It complicates decisions on which variety to teach Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a 'basilect' in a creole continuum?

The least prestigious, most creole-like variety Signup and view all the answers

Which term refers to the phenomenon where a word in a pidgin or creole takes on multiple related meanings?

Polysemy Signup and view all the answers

What is one function that standard languages typically serve in multilingual nations?

They facilitate communication across dialectal diversity for official purposes Signup and view all the answers

In the context of Afrikaans, what debate is mentioned regarding its linguistic origins?

Whether it is a creole language Signup and view all the answers

Which of these options are correct? (Select all that apply)

Russian Signup and view all the answers

What is one consequence of a creole being used side-by-side with the standard language in a community?

Features of the creole change towards the standard language Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best describes the linguistic status of Nicaraguan Sign Language?

It is a creole developing among schoolchildren Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a factor that contributes to the survival of vernacular languages in the face of lingua francas?

Strong ethnic identity and linguistic distinctiveness Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of substrate influence in the development of creole languages?

It influences grammatical structures and syntax Signup and view all the answers

How are affixes typically treated in pidgin languages?

They are rarely used, with meanings expressed elsewhere in the sentence or deduced from context Signup and view all the answers

What is one linguistic characteristic common to many pidgin languages?

Polysemy, with words having multiple meanings Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following languages serves as a lingua franca among the educated in the Arabic-speaking world?

Classical Arabic Signup and view all the answers

In a diglossic situation, what role does the 'L' variety typically play?

It's used in informal, everyday interactions Signup and view all the answers

Which language served as a lingua franca in the former Soviet Union?

Russian Signup and view all the answers

In the Vaupés region, what linguistic practice helps maintain the numerous languages spoken among the tribes?

Exogamous marriages where individuals must marry outside their language group Signup and view all the answers

What is 'decreolisation' in the context of creole languages?

The process of a creole adopting features of its lexifier language Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of a pidgin language's vocabulary?

It contains polysemous words with multiple meanings Signup and view all the answers

What is one argument against the idea that all pidgins and creoles originated from a single source?

The similarities can be explained by universal processes of language development Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the process when a language extends its functions from exclusively high domains to include everyday communication?

Vernacularisation Signup and view all the answers

Why do pidgin languages often have irregular grammatical features?

Due to their simplified structure lacking standardization Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the term 'lexifier language'?

A language that contributes most of the vocabulary to a pidgin or creole Signup and view all the answers

What is 'creole continuum'?

A range of dialects from the basilect to the acrolect within a creole-speaking community Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the process of 'creolisation' in language development?

A pidgin develops into a fully-fledged language with native speakers Signup and view all the answers

In language policy, what factors are often considered when selecting a language to promote as official or national?

Non-linguistic factors like political, social, and economic considerations Signup and view all the answers

When selecting a language to promote as a national or official language, what type of factors are usually the most influential?

Non-linguistic factors such as political, social, and economic considerations Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a creole language that has been adopted as a national language?

Indonesian Signup and view all the answers

Which process involves a creole changing in the direction of the standard language from which it derived much of its vocabulary?

Decreolisation Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary function of a lingua franca in multilingual communities?

To facilitate communication between speakers of different native languages Signup and view all the answers

Which language serves as the most widely used lingua franca in East Africa, particularly in Tanzania?

Swahili Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for a language that has been developed for everyday interaction, expanding from high (H) functions to include low (L) functions?

Vernacularisation Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following languages is an example of a pidgin that has developed into a creole language?

Haitian Creole Signup and view all the answers

Why do pidgin languages tend to have small vocabularies?

They develop for specific, limited functions that don't require extensive vocabulary Signup and view all the answers

In which way do pidgin languages handle complex consonant clusters from their lexifier languages?

They often simplify them or insert vowels to break them up Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'mesolect' refer to in a post-creole continuum?

Varieties intermediate between the acrolect and basilect Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for the development of pidgins, as stated in the document?

To facilitate communication in multilingual situations where no common language exists Signup and view all the answers

In bilingual communities, why might a standard language emerge from one particular dialect?

It is associated with political, economic, and social power centers Signup and view all the answers

What is one reason why the large number of pidgin words derived from European languages might mislead people?

It leads people to think pidgins are debased forms of their own language Signup and view all the answers

What is one function that pidgins typically do not fulfill?

Expressing complex philosophical ideas Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of a pidgin language often increases the burden on the listener rather than the speaker?

Minimal grammatical signaling Signup and view all the answers

In pidgin languages, how is plurality often indicated without the use of inflectional morphology?

Through context or additional words Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of 'Tok Pisin' in the study of pidgins and creoles?

It illustrates the transition from pidgin to creole Signup and view all the answers

What is one way creoles tend to expand their vocabulary compared to pidgins?

By developing compounding and affixation processes Signup and view all the answers

In sociolinguistics, what is the primary purpose of studying pidgins and creoles?

To understand language development and change Signup and view all the answers

What role does the 'H' language play in a diglossic situation involving a creole?

The 'H' language is used in formal domains while the creole serves informal functions Signup and view all the answers

What is one effect of pidgin languages on local vernaculars in multilingual contexts?

Pidgins often replace vernaculars in certain domains Signup and view all the answers

Which process involves developing a language for use as the national language by extending its functions from only high domains to everyday communication?

Vernacularisation Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a feature of creole languages that distinguishes them from pidgins?

Presence of native speakers who use it in all domains Signup and view all the answers

How might government policy influence the status and development of a creole language?

By promoting it as a national or official language Signup and view all the answers

In the context of language development, what does the term 'pidginisation' refer to?

The initial creation of a pidgin language Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key non-linguistic factor in selecting a language as official or national?

Historical prestige and association with power Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a pidgin that emerged due to trade interactions?

Juba Arabic Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Bilingualism and Language Use

Over half the world's population is bilingual or multilingual mainly due to the necessity of using different languages in daily interactions.
Individuals typically learn a vernacular language as their first language in multilingual communities for informal communication.

Definitions of Language Varieties

A vernacular language is unstandardized, has no official status, and is often the first language learned at home.
The three components of 'vernacular': unstandardized, first language, limited functions.

Standard Language and Its Characteristics

A standard language has undergone codification, recognized as prestigious, and is used for high functions.
The area around London contributed significantly to the development of Standard British English.

Influential Figures in Language Development

William Caxton played a crucial role by establishing the first English printing press, promoting the London dialect which led to standardization.

Language Interaction

A lingua franca serves as a means of communication between speakers of different native languages.
Examples include Tukano in the Vaupés region of the Amazon, functioning as a lingua franca among various tribes.

Pidgins and Creoles

Pidgins often have simplified structures due to their use in limited functions or domains (e.g., trade).
The lexifier language provides the bulk of vocabulary in pidgins and creoles, while the substrate influences grammar.
Creolisation is the process by which a pidgin becomes a fully developed language with native speakers.

Decreolisation occurs when a creole language develops features closer to the standard language in the community.
A post-creole continuum describes the spectrum of varieties between a creole (basilect) and standard language (acrolect).

Sociolinguistic Status

Haitian Creole is the low (L) variety in Haiti's diglossic situation, used alongside the high (H) variety, French.
Pidgin languages are often viewed negatively and associated with low social status, contributing to societal attitudes.

Language Evolution and Function

Pidgins can evolve into creoles when learned as a first language; they offer insights into language development and change.
The disappearance of the specific functions of pidgins usually leads to their extinction.

Lexifier and Language Characteristics

Common lexifier languages for pidgins and creoles include English, French, Spanish, and Portuguese, but not Russian.
Pidgin languages are characterized by polysemy, often having words with multiple meanings to compensate for limited vocabulary.

Factors Influencing Language Survival

Strong ethnic identity and linguistic distinctiveness can help vernacular languages survive against lingua francas.
In diglossic situations, the role of the L variety is primarily in informal settings, while the H variety dominates formal contexts.### Diglossia and Language Varieties
In diglossia, the 'L' (low) variety functions in informal, everyday communication, while the 'H' (high) variety is used in formal education and administration.
The 'H' language retains higher prestige compared to the 'L' language, influencing its use in formal contexts.

Lingua Franca in Historical Context

Russian served as a lingua franca in the former Soviet Union, facilitating communication among diverse language groups.

Concepts in Creole Linguistics

Decreolisation: The process where a creole language adopts features from its lexifier language, often moving closer to a standard language.
Lexifier Language: The primary source language that contributes most vocabulary to a pidgin or creole, often highlighting its origin.
Creole Continuum: A spectrum of dialects ranging from basilect (deep creole) to acrolect (closest to the standard language), illustrating variations within a creole-speaking community.

Language Policy and Development

Language selection for official status often considers non-linguistic factors such as political, social, and economic implications rather than purely linguistic aspects.
Vernacularisation: The process of extending a language from high functions to everyday communication, enhancing its role in daily life.

Creole Languages and Pidgins

Indonesian emerged as a national language from pidgin Malay, showcasing how pidgins can evolve into widely recognized languages.
Haitian Creole is a notable example of a pidgin that developed into a fully-fledged creole language, featuring native speakers.

Functions and Features of Pidgins

Pidgin languages typically have limited vocabularies suited for specific, practical functions like trade.
They simplify complex grammatical structures from their lexifier languages, often easing pronunciation.

Language Variation and Plurality

Plurality in pidgin languages is often indicated through context or additional words instead of inflectional morphology.
Mesolect: Refers to varieties of a creole that lie between the acrolect and basilect, demonstrating linguistic diversity within a single community.

Socioeconomic Influences on Language

Government policies can elevate a creole language by promoting it as a national or official language, thereby enhancing its social status and usage.
Pidginisation marks the initial creation of a pidgin to facilitate communication among groups lacking a common language.

Attitudes Towards Creole Languages

Creole speakers often express strong loyalty to their language, viewing it as vital to their identity and cultural expression, despite societal stigmas.

Language and Identity

In bilingual communities, the standard language often emerges from a particular dialect associated with political or social power, emphasizing the influence of authority on language prestige.

Code-Switching and Literature

Code-switching refers to the practice of alternating between languages or dialects in conversation, reflecting linguistic adaptability and cultural fluidity.
Many vernacular languages lack formal literature or codification due to historical suppression by dominant language structures, limiting their written expression.### Tense Markers and Creoles
Creoles often develop particles or affixes to systematically express grammatical tense, such as 'bin' in Roper River Creole for the past tense.

Tok Pisin as an Official Language

Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea is an example of a fully developed creole that has been standardized and adopted as an official language.

Complexity in Pidgins

The need to express more complex meanings in pidgin languages leads to grammatical elaboration and vocabulary expansion, often leading to creolisation.

Hebrew as a National Language

Hebrew was vernacularised in Israel, transitioning from ritual use to everyday communication and developed as the national language.

Nativised Varieties of English

'Nativised' English varieties, like Singlish, incorporate distinctive linguistic features influenced by local languages, differing from standard English.

Multilingualism

Mr. Patel exemplifies multilingualism, using different languages for various purposes in daily life.

Caxton's Influence

Caxton’s printing press played a critical role in stabilizing and codifying the London dialect as standard English.

Understanding Pidgins

Pidgin languages can be challenging for English speakers to understand due to their irregular and non-English grammatical structures.

Meaning of 'Washman'

In creole contexts, 'washman' refers to a person employed to do laundry, combining elements of English words.

Creoles and Linguistic Structure

The indistinguishability of creoles from other languages in terms of structure suggests that all languages may undergo similar developmental processes.

Disappearance of Pidgins

Pidgins may disappear if the functions they serve are no longer needed.

Expanding Circle of English

In Kachru's model, the 'expanding circle' includes countries where English is learned as a foreign language for specific purposes, such as in China and Japan.

Post-Creole Continuum in Education

The existence of a post-creole continuum complicates decisions regarding which language variety to teach in educational settings.

Basilect Definition

A 'basilect' is the least prestigious, most creole-like variety within a language continuum.

Polysemy in Pidgins

Polysemy is common in pidgin languages, where a single word can have multiple related meanings due to limited vocabulary.

Role of Standard Languages

Standard languages facilitate communication across dialectal diversity, especially for official purposes in multilingual nations.

Afrikaans Debate

There is ongoing debate about whether Afrikaans has creole origins due to its development and linguistic features.

Nicaraguan Sign Language

Nicaraguan Sign Language is a creole developing among schoolchildren, highlighting the emergence of new signed languages.

Substrate Influence on Creoles

Substrate languages influence creole grammar and syntax, shaping the linguistic structure of these languages.

Affix Usage in Pidgins

Pidgin languages rarely use affixes, with meanings often expressed through context instead.

Classical Arabic as a Lingua Franca

Classical Arabic serves as a lingua franca among educated individuals in the Arabic-speaking world.

Linguistic Practices in Vaupés

Exogamous marriages in the Vaupés region help maintain linguistic diversity by preventing individuals from marrying within the same language group.

Vocabulary of Pidgins

Pidgin vocabulary often contains polysemous words due to a limited lexicon.

Vernacularisation Process

Vernacularisation describes how a language extends its use to everyday communication, moving from high to low domains.

Pidgin Irregularities

Irregular grammatical features in pidgin languages arise from their simplified structures and lack of formal standardization.

Creolisation Process

Creolisation refers to a pidgin developing into a fully-fledged language with native speakers.

Language Promotion Factors

Non-linguistic factors, such as political and social considerations, significantly influence the selection of national or official languages.

Decreolisation Defined

Decreolisation involves a creole language evolving towards the standard language from which it derives much of its vocabulary.

Vernacular in Monolingual Communities

The term 'vernacular' refers to the most colloquial variety of a language within a monolingual community.

Lingua Franca in Vaupés

Non-Indians in the Vaupés region communicate with indigenous peoples primarily in Spanish or Portuguese.

Decline of Vernaculars

The presence of a lingua franca can contribute to the decline of vernacular languages, particularly in multilingual contexts.

Definition of Vernacular Languages

A vernacular language is defined as the first language of a socially or politically dominated group, according to a UNESCO report.

Outer-Circle English Varieties

In Kachru's model, outer-circle English varieties serve as additional languages with significant societal functions.

Swahili as National Language

Swahili was promoted as Tanzania's national language due to its established role as a lingua franca.

Negative Attitudes Toward Pidgins

Negative attitudes towards pidgin and creole languages primarily arise from their low social prestige and association with lower-status groups.

Italian Language Academy Outcome

The establishment of the first language academy in Italy in 1582 contributed to the development of a standardized Italian language.

Misconceptions About Pidgin Languages

Native speakers of lexifier languages often incorrectly view pidgins as debased forms of their own language, undermining the complexities involved in pidgin use.

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