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Questions and Answers

What percentage of the surface area of the alveoli is covered by type II alveolar epithelial cells?

  • 10% (correct)
  • 5%
  • 20%
  • 30%

    • What is the effect of slow deep breathing on alveolar ventilation compared to fast rapid breathing?

  • It decreases alveolar ventilation
  • It depends on the individual's breathing pattern
  • It increases alveolar ventilation (correct)
  • It has no effect on alveolar ventilation

    • What is the change in intrapleural space pressure when there is a connection to atmospheric pressure?

  • It becomes zero
  • It increases to atmospheric pressure (correct)
  • It remains the same
  • It becomes more negative

    • What is the characteristic symptom of pneumothorax?

    <p>Sudden onset of unilateral pleuritic pain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the composition of surfactant?

    <p>A complex mixture of phospholipids, proteins, and ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main reason why less gas enters the collapsed lung during inspiration?

    <p>The air in the intrapleural space acts as a barrier to the transmission of sounds from the lungs to the chest wall</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical pulse rate that suggests tension pneumothorax?

    <p>Pulse rate &gt; 135 beats per minute</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the abnormal pulse characteristic that suggests severe pneumothorax?

    <p>Pulsus paradoxicus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of immediate management in pneumothorax?

    <p>To reduce hypoxia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary use of a CT scan in pneumothorax diagnosis?

    <p>To differentiate a large bulla from a pneumothorax</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the pressure in the alveoli during normal inspiration?

    <p>-1 cmH2O</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs during normal expiration?

    <p>Alveolar pressure rises to about +1 cmH2O</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the transpulmonary pressure a measure of?

    <p>The elastic forces in the lungs that tend to collapse the lungs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the volume of air pulled into the lungs during normal quiet inspiration?

    <p>0.5 liters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the reference pressure in the airways?

    <p>0 cmH2O</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of air movement in normal breathing at rest is accounted for by diaphragmatic contraction?

    <p>75%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During quiet inspiration, what happens to the floor of the thoracic cavity?

    <p>It flattens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary direction of rib movement during inspiration?

    <p>Downward and forward</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the accessory respiratory muscles during inspiration?

    <p>To assist in forced inspiration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of decreasing the size of the chest cavity during expiration?

    <p>Increased intra-alveolar pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs in the bronchioles when Pco2 is high?

    <p>Bronchodilation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a cause of hypoxia?

    <p>Deficiency of oxygen in the atmosphere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the blueness of the skin caused by excessive amounts of deoxygenated haemoglobin in the skin blood vessels?

    <p>Cyanosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the acute effects of hypoxia on the body?

    <p>Decreased mental proficiency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a cause of hypoxia?

    <p>Increased oxygenation of the blood in the lungs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main mechanism that holds the lungs to the thoracic wall?

    <p>Surface tension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the normal pleural pressure at the beginning of inspiration?

    <p>-5 centimetres of water (cm H2O)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the pressure of the 'fluid' in the pleural cavity called?

    <p>Pleural pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the continual suction of excess fluid into lymphatic channels?

    <p>To maintain a slight suction between the visceral pleural surface of the lung and the parietal pleural surface of the thoracic cavity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the expansion of the chest cage during normal inspiration?

    <p>Decreased pleural pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of dyspnoea in pneumothorax?

    <p>Difficulty in taking a deep breath due to lung collapse</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic percussion note on the affected side in pneumothorax?

    <p>Resonant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic finding on physical examination of the chest in pneumothorax?

    <p>Reduced chest expansion on the affected side</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the diagnostic finding on chest x-ray in pneumothorax?

    <p>Extra black space around the lung</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of pneumothorax on the mediastinum?

    <p>Shift towards the unaffected side</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic respiratory symptom in pneumothorax?

    <p>Dyspnoea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic finding on auscultation in pneumothorax?

    <p>Decreased breath sounds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic palpation finding on the affected side in pneumothorax?

    <p>Decreased movement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic percussion note on the affected side in tension pneumothorax?

    <p>Hyperresonant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the diagnostic combination of findings in pneumothorax?

    <p>Decreased breath sounds and resonant percussion note</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the direction of oxygen diffusion from the peripheral capillaries into the tissue fluid?

    <p>From high PO2 to low PO2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the PO2 in the capillaries when oxygen diffuses out of the capillaries and into the tissue fluid?

    <p>It decreases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the upper limit of tissue PO2, even with maximal blood flow?

    <p>95 mmHg</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the direction of carbon dioxide diffusion from the peripheral tissue cells?

    <p>Into the capillaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which oxygen is transported in the blood?

    <p>In combination with haemoglobin in the red blood cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determines the tissue PO2?

    <p>A balance between the rate of oxygen transport to the tissues and the rate at which oxygen is used by the tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the partial pressure of oxygen in the pulmonary capillary blood after diffusion from the alveoli?

    <p>It increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the direction of oxygen diffusion in the tissue capillaries?

    <p>From the capillaries into the surrounding tissue cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fate of oxygen in the body's tissue cells?

    <p>It is metabolized into carbon dioxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to carbon dioxide in the tissue capillaries?

    <p>It is transported back to the lungs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveolar air?

    <p>104 mmHg</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During strenuous exercise, what happens to the time blood remains in the pulmonary capillary?

    <p>It decreases to less than half the normal amount</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why can the blood still become nearly fully oxygenated during exercise?

    <p>Because the pulmonary blood is nearly fully saturated by the time it has moved a third of the distance through the capillary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the partial pressure of oxygen in venous blood?

    <p>40 mmHg</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the initial pressure difference driving diffusion of oxygen into the pulmonary capillaries?

    <p>64 mmHg</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why carbon dioxide can diffuse about 20 times more rapidly than oxygen?

    <p>Because carbon dioxide is more soluble in blood plasma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate PCO2 in the interstitial fluid?

    <p>45 mm Hg</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of an increase in tissue metabolic rate on interstitial PCO2?

    <p>It increases the interstitial PCO2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of oxygen in arterial blood is carried in chemical combination with hemoglobin?

    <p>97%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of hemoglobin in oxygen transport?

    <p>To combine loosely and reversibly with oxygen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of an increase in solubility coefficient on the partial pressure of a gas?

    <p>It decreases the partial pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Henry's Law, what is the relationship between the concentration of a dissolved gas and its partial pressure?

    <p>Directly proportional</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If the solubility coefficient of oxygen is 20 times less than that of carbon dioxide, what is the relationship between their partial pressures?

    <p>The partial pressure of oxygen is one-twentieth that of carbon dioxide</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the direction of gas diffusion in the alveoli?

    <p>From the alveoli to the blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the factor that determines the rate of gas diffusion in the alveoli?

    <p>Partial pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors has the greatest influence on the solubility coefficient of a gas?

    <p>Temperature of the fluid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Henry's Law, what is the direct relationship between?

    <p>Solubility of the gas and partial pressure difference of the gas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the difference in gas concentrations between alveolar air and atmospheric air?

    <p>Alveolar air is only partially replaced by atmospheric air with each breath</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following factors affects the rate of diffusion of a gas?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of increased temperature on the kinetic activity of molecules?

    <p>It increases the kinetic activity of the molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the increased ventilation at the start of exercise?

    <p>To reach aerobic conditions as quickly as possible</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of vasodilation on the diffusion of oxygen?

    <p>It increases the surface area of capillaries participating in diffusion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of oxygen-saturated blood that enters the left atrium from the lungs?

    <p>98%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the blood that is shunted past the gas exchange areas in the lungs?

    <p>Shunt flow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of the venous admixture on the PO2 of blood entering the left heart?

    <p>It decreases the PO2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which the ventilation is regulated during exercise?

    <p>Peripheral chemoreceptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of increased ventilation at the start of exercise on the physiologic shunt?

    <p>It decreases the physiologic shunt</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary stimulus for the peripheral chemoreceptors to regulate ventilation during exercise?

    <p>Increase in CO2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of vasodilation on the type of respiration during exercise?

    <p>It leads to aerobic respiration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the PO2 of the shunt flow blood?

    <p>40 mmHg</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why tobacco companies need to recruit young smokers?

    <p>To replace the 50% of their adult customers who die from using their products</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of smoking in the UK?

    <p>It has declined faster in men than women</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the benefit of group therapy in aiding smokers to quit?

    <p>It makes smokers feel less patronized</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the trend in the number of young girls taking up smoking?

    <p>It is increasing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the association of smoking with, according to most smokers?

    <p>Fun and pleasure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a limitation of the registrar general's occupational measure of class?

    <p>It does not have an option for the unemployed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of explanation emphasizes the role of economic and associated socio-structural factors in the distribution of health and well-being?

    <p>Materialist or structuralist explanation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the social selection explanation, what determines social class?

    <p>Health determines social class</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is associated with worse health according to the materialist or structuralist explanation?

    <p>Low-quality and damp housing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of low socio-economic status according to the materialist or structuralist explanation?

    <p>Inadequacies in diet</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which operant conditioning influences drug use?

    <p>By associating drug use with positive reinforcement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following drug antagonist medications is used to treat nicotine addiction?

    <p>Welbutrin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of classical conditioning in relation to drug use?

    <p>Associating drug use with feelings of relaxation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the social learning theory, what is a major factor that contributes to drug use?

    <p>Peer pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of socio-economic status on health, according to the biomedical model?

    <p>Increased exposure to toxins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that influences an individual's smoking behaviour, according to the text?

    <p>Peer group pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe an individual who lacks control over their behaviour and uses a maladaptive coping mechanism?

    <p>Addict</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following theories of addiction views addiction as a result of weakness and a lack of moral fibre?

    <p>Moral Model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the use of a substance that is psychologically and physiologically addictive?

    <p>Addiction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that influences an individual's decision to smoke, according to the text, especially among problem-prone individuals?

    <p>Peer group pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main argument of the Social Causation theory?

    <p>Low social status causes stress and leads to mental illness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of Varenicline?

    <p>To stimulate nicotine receptors more weakly than nicotine itself</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Drift Hypothesis concerning the relationship between mental illness and social class?

    <p>Mental illness causes a downward shift in social class</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of the relationship between health and class according to the artefact explanation?

    <p>They are artificial variables produced by attempts to measure social phenomena</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the last stage of the cessation process?

    <p>Maintenance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of COPD cases in developed countries are attributed to cigarette smoking?

    <p>90%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical age range for COPD to occur?

    <p>45 years or older</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary risk factor for developing COPD?

    <p>Long-term smoking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common symptom of COPD?

    <p>Productive cough</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a diagnostic indicator of COPD?

    <p>FEV1 less than 80%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of rust-coloured sputum in sputum examination?

    <p>It indicates the presence of pneumococcal bacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a useful investigation to exclude anaemia or document polycythaemia in COPD patients?

    <p>Blood count</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the only intervention proven to decelerate the decline in FEV1 in COPD patients?

    <p>Smoking cessation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of bronchodilators are used in severe COPD?

    <p>Long-term β-Adrenergic agonists</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the benefit of combining inhaled corticosteroids with long-acting β2-agonists in COPD treatment?

    <p>It reduces the frequency and severity of exacerbations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why should antibiotics be given in acute episodes of COPD?

    <p>To prevent hospital admission and further lung damage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of yellow or green sputum in COPD patients?

    <p>It is a sign of an acute exacerbation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of treatment in COPD patients?

    <p>To manage symptoms and slow disease progression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of α1-Antitrypsin levels and genotype in COPD diagnosis?

    <p>To identify genetic predisposition to COPD</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the benefit of bronchodilators in COPD treatment?

    <p>They improve symptoms and quality of life</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which the Frank-Starling mechanism increases stroke volume?

    <p>Increased functional cross-bridge formation within the sarcomeres</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential consequence of disrupted cardiac conduction?

    <p>Decreased cardiac output due to inefficient contraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary compensatory mechanism that increases cardiac output in response to heart failure?

    <p>Frank-Starling mechanism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential cause of decreased cardiac output in heart failure?

    <p>Decreased contractility of the ventricular muscle due to damage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a potential consequence of regurgitant flow in heart failure?

    <p>Decreased cardiac output due to increased volume workload</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In heart failure, what is the effect on peripheral vasodilation?

    <p>It increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to capillary pressure in severe acute cardiac failure?

    <p>It decreases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of acute heart failure on peripheral oedema?

    <p>It never causes peripheral oedema</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between aortic pressure and right atrial pressure in a failing heart?

    <p>Both pressures approach equilibrium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the kidneys in peripheral oedema?

    <p>They increase fluid retention</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of increased venous return on cardiac function?

    <p>Increased stroke volume</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of ventricular remodeling in response to injury or changes in loading conditions?

    <p>Overcompensation leading to an insufficient pump</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which angiotensin II increases cardiac output?

    <p>Increased venous return</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the sympathetic nervous system in compensating for acute cardiac failure?

    <p>Strengthening the damaged musculature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of failure of adaptive mechanisms in cardiac compensation?

    <p>Heart failure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of Decompensated Heart Failure?

    <p>The cardiac output cannot rise high enough to make the kidneys excrete normal quantities of fluid.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of Compensated Heart Failure?

    <p>The cardiac reserve is reduced, making it difficult to perform heavy exercise.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of Left-Sided Heart Failure?

    <p>Congestion of the pulmonary circulation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of Decompensated Heart Failure on the kidneys?

    <p>The kidneys are unable to excrete normal quantities of fluid, leading to fluid retention.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the heart's inability to increase its pumping capacity in Compensated Heart Failure?

    <p>The person experiences immediate return of the symptoms of acute failure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which the kidneys compensate for heart failure?

    <p>Retaining fluid to increase blood volume</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of increased venous return on the heart in cardiac failure?

    <p>Increased cardiac output</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of severe fluid retention in heart failure?

    <p>Increased workload on the heart</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of distended veins on blood flow to the heart?

    <p>Reduced venous resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of the body's compensatory mechanisms in heart failure?

    <p>To return cardiac output to near-normal levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of increased cardiac output on the capillaries?

    <p>Fluid begins to transude out of the capillaries into the tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of autoregulation on peripheral vascular resistance?

    <p>It increases peripheral vascular resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the definition of heart failure?

    <p>A condition in which the heart is unable to pump enough blood to meet the body's needs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of increased cardiac output on the venous blood reservoirs such as the liver and spleen?

    <p>They distend and reduce mean systemic pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the ultimate result of the compensatory mechanisms that occur in response to increased cardiac output?

    <p>Cardiac output returns to almost normal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which the heart compensates for increased ventricular load in heart failure?

    <p>Increased sympathetic tone</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of increased brain natriuretic peptide levels on cardiac function?

    <p>Increased vasodilation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a common cause of tachycardia-induced cardiomyopathy?

    <p>Atrial fibrillation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which the heart adapts to chronic pressure overload in hypertension?

    <p>Hypertrophic remodeling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of decreased stroke volume on cardiac output?

    <p>Decreased cardiac output</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of New York Heart Association (NYHA) class IV heart failure?

    <p>Severe limitations and symptoms even at rest</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which troponin T levels are elevated in heart failure?

    <p>Cardiac myocyte damage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of increased left ventricular end-diastolic pressure on cardiac function?

    <p>Decreased cardiac output</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a common cause of dilated cardiomyopathy?

    <p>Alcohol toxicity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which the heart adapts to chronic volume overload in valvular heart disease?

    <p>Eccentric hypertrophy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which medication increases myocardial oxygen supply by causing vasodilation?

    <p>Nitrates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which Beta-Blockers reduce myocardial oxygen demand?

    <p>Decreasing myocardial contractility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of Calcium Channel Antagonists on myocardial oxygen demand?

    <p>Decreases myocardial contractility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of taking Nitrates as a prophylactic medication?

    <p>To prevent symptoms of angina when engaging in physical activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mechanism of action of Ivabradine?

    <p>Inhibiting the cardiac pacemaker current</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of patients who deny the severity of their illness?

    <p>They are less likely to believe that they can influence the outcome of their illness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor is modified in rehabilitation programmes that focus on general lifestyle?

    <p>Smoking and diet habits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a benefit of patients receiving an intervention to modify their illness cognitions?

    <p>They have more positive views about their illness at follow-up</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What demographic group is less likely to be referred for rehabilitation?

    <p>Women</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key factor in the success of lifestyle changes in patients with MI?

    <p>Changing lifestyle with a partner</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of population-based strategies in cardiovascular disease prevention?

    <p>Modifying risk factors for the whole population</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of correcting modifiable risk factors in patients with atherosclerotic disease?

    <p>Reducing the risk of future cardiovascular events</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the recommended antiplatelet therapy for patients with coronary artery disease?

    <p>Low-dose aspirin (75 mg) indefinitely</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of secondary prevention strategies in cardiovascular disease?

    <p>Treating atherosclerotic disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary emphasis of patient rehabilitation in cardiovascular disease management?

    <p>Lifestyle modifications, such as exercise and diet</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of High-Density Lipoproteins (HDL) in the bloodstream?

    <p>Increase fibrinolysis and decrease aggregation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary treatment option for reducing the risk of atherosclerosis?

    <p>Statins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the benefit of using eluting stents during angioplasty?

    <p>They limit smooth muscle cell hyperplasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary complication of myocardial infarction (MI) related to cardiac function?

    <p>Cardiac failure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using arterial grafts over venous grafts in coronary artery bypass surgery?

    <p>They have a longer patency rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of Low-Density Lipoproteins (LDL) on the bloodstream?

    <p>Decrease fibrinolysis and increase the risk of atherosclerosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of angioplasty on blood flow in narrowed blood vessels?

    <p>It increases blood flow by expanding the vessel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of post-MI drug therapy?

    <p>Reduce the risk of atherosclerosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What motivates individuals to focus on a single cause for their myocardial infarction?

    <p>Desire to assert control over their future health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common psychological impact on partners of myocardial infarction patients?

    <p>Elevated depression and anxiety scores</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate percentage of patients who are free of angina after undergoing coronary artery bypass surgery?

    <p>90%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of rehabilitation programmes for coronary heart disease sufferers?

    <p>To reduce risk factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of balloon catheterization in angioplasty?

    <p>To expand the narrowed blood vessel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common characteristic of illness beliefs about coronary heart disease?

    <p>Focus on a single cause for their myocardial infarction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of counselling on depression and anxiety scores in myocardial infarction patients?

    <p>Reduces depression and anxiety scores</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of psychology in Coronary Heart Disease?

    <p>To study the four aspects of CHD: Illness Beliefs, Psychological Impact, Predicting and Changing Risk Factors, and Patient Rehabilitation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main goal of Patient Rehabilitation in CHD?

    <p>To improve the quality of life of CHD patients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the antiplatelet drug used to prevent thrombosis in patients with myocardial infarction with ST elevation?

    <p>Ticagrelor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mechanism of action of Ticagrelor?

    <p>Blocking adenosine disphosphate (ADP) receptors of platelets</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of Atrovastatin?

    <p>To lower blood cholesterol levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the highest death rates from CHD in men and women in the manual classes?

    <p>Higher prevalence of risk factors in manual classes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary focus of Illness Beliefs in CHD patients?

    <p>Understanding patient's beliefs about CHD</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of predicting and changing risk factors in CHD patients?

    <p>To decrease the prevalence of CHD risk factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the common side effect of Ticagrelor?

    <p>Various types of bleeding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mechanism of action of Atrovastatin?

    <p>Competitive inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase enzyme</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which chronic hypertension increases peripheral vascular resistance?

    <p>Reduced vessel lumen diameter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of left ventricular hypertrophy in terms of cardiovascular event risk?

    <p>It is a significant prognostic indicator of future cardiovascular events</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following renal vasculature changes is associated with chronic hypertension?

    <p>Increased arteriole wall thickness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of chronic hypertension on large arteries?

    <p>Thickening of the media with secondary deposition of calcium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why liquorice is a potential risk factor for cardiovascular disease?

    <p>It causes salt retention, leading to increased blood pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which increased blood pressure contributes to the development of cardiovascular disease?

    <p>Vasoconstriction of arterioles leading to increased cardiac output</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a common risk factor for the development of hypertension?

    <p>High alcohol consumption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of hypertension patients have Secondary Hypertension?

    <p>2%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the expected number of people worldwide with hypertension by 2025?

    <p>1.56 billion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the clinically defined blood pressure cutoff for hypertension?

    <p>&gt;140/90 mmHg</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that affects the stroke volume?

    <p>Preload</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which the sympathetic nervous system affects the total peripheral resistance?

    <p>Vessel radius</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of changes in the renal vasculature?

    <p>Reduced glomerular filtration rate and sodium retention</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of increased sympathetic nervous system activity on the blood vessels?

    <p>Vasoconstriction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which nicotine contributes to tobacco-related diseases?

    <p>Binding to nicotinic cholinergic receptors in the brain, leading to addiction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of smoking cessation in reducing cardiovascular disease risk?

    <p>Decreasing overall mortality and cardiovascular disease risk</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that affects the heart rate?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary location of the vasomotor centre that controls the sympathetic tone?

    <p>Medulla oblongata</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cardiovascular event risk factor associated with hypercholesterolaemia?

    <p>Decreased serum potassium levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which lifestyle changes reduce cardiovascular disease risk?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which amlodipine decreases blood pressure?

    <p>By antagonizing the L-type calcium channels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of smoking on the cardiovascular system?

    <p>Vasoconstriction and increased cardiac output</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary risk factor for atherosclerosis?

    <p>Smoking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which chlorthalidone reduces blood pressure?

    <p>By increasing the excretion of sodium ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of amlodipine in the treatment of hypertension?

    <p>Preventing angina pectoris</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which collateral vessels develop around a blockage?

    <p>Dilation of small vascular loops</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the equation that relates blood pressure to cardiac output and total peripheral resistance?

    <p>Blood Pressure = Cardiac Output × Total Peripheral Resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of chronic regulation of blood flow in collateral vessels?

    <p>Growth and enlargement of new vessels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that determines cardiac output?

    <p>Volume of blood expelled by the heart per minute</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of acute regulation of blood flow?

    <p>Rapid metabolic dilation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of collateral vessels in the body?

    <p>To bypass a blockage and restore blood flow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between acute and chronic regulation of blood flow?

    <p>Acute regulation leads to rapid dilation, while chronic regulation leads to growth and enlargement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the development of collateral vessels around a blockage?

    <p>Partial restoration of blood flow to the affected tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that determines the development of collateral vessels?

    <p>Flow of blood through the vessel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of collateral vessels that develop around a blockage?

    <p>They are small and multiple</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of stimulating the cardioinhibitory centre on the heart rate?

    <p>Decreases the heart rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the response of the body to a decrease in blood pressure?

    <p>Increases the activity of the sympathetic nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of catecholamines in blood pressure regulation?

    <p>Increases blood pressure by vasoconstriction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) on blood pressure?

    <p>Decreases blood pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS) in blood pressure regulation?

    <p>Increases blood pressure by promoting vasoconstriction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary source of iron in the body?

    <p>Haemoglobin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of reticulocytosis?

    <p>Polychromasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of microvascular occlusions in sickle cell disease?

    <p>Tissue damage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of anaemia in the world?

    <p>Iron deficiency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the underlying mechanism of sickle cell disease?

    <p>HbS molecules undergo polymerization when deoxygenated</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary method of treating sickle cell disease?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of myelofibrosis?

    <p>Presence of tear drop cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the reason for increased susceptibility to infections in sickle cell disease?

    <p>Altered splenic function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of serum ferritin in the body?

    <p>To indicate the adequacy of body iron stores</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic shape of red cells in sickle cell disease?

    <p>Sickle shape</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the condition where four genes are mutated, leading to death during pregnancy?

    <p>α-Thalassaemia major</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of ineffective erythropoiesis in Thalassaemia?

    <p>Severe iron overload</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of β0 mutations in Thalassaemia?

    <p>Absent β-globin synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the expanding mass of red cell precursors in the bone marrow in Thalassaemia?

    <p>Erosion of the bony cortex and impaired bone growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the cytoplasmic enzymes in red blood cells?

    <p>To maintain pliability of the cell membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the classification of Thalassaemia where the patient is asymptomatic but can still transmit the disorder to their offspring?

    <p>Thalassaemia Minor/Carrier</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fate of the haemoglobin released from ruptured red blood cells?

    <p>It is broken down into bilirubin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of the spleen being removed?

    <p>The number of old abnormal red cells circulating in the blood increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of transferrin in the process of haemoglobin breakdown?

    <p>It carries Fe2+ to the bone marrow for production of new erythrocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the macrophages converting the porphyrin portion of the haemoglobin molecule?

    <p>Bilirubin is released into the blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the binding of one oxygen molecule to deoxyhaemoglobin?

    <p>Increase in oxygen affinity of the remaining binding sites</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of apotransferrin in the duodenal circulation?

    <p>Binding to free iron to form transferrin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (DPG) in the deoxygenated state of haemoglobin?

    <p>Decrease oxygen affinity of haemoglobin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fate of transferrin in the liver?

    <p>Formation of ferritin for storage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of folate deficiency in the synthesis of DNA?

    <p>Impaired DNA synthesis leading to megaloblastic anaemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the destination of transferrin in the bone marrow?

    <p>Erythroblasts for haemoglobin production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of haemoglobin in homozygous individuals with sickle cell disease?

    <p>It is almost entirely composed of HbS</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of haemolysis in sickle cell disease?

    <p>Both extravascular and intravascular haemolysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of the point mutation in the β-globin gene in sickle cell disease?

    <p>Replacement of a glutamate residue with a valine residue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of sickle cell disease in terms of its prevalence?

    <p>It is more common in people of African descent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which protein oxidizes iron in the basolateral transfer of iron to transferrin?

    <p>Hephaestin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to ferroportin when hepcidin concentrations are high?

    <p>It is internalized and degraded</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of ferric reductase in iron transport?

    <p>To reduce iron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fate of the iron that is not delivered to plasma transferrin?

    <p>It is lost through exfoliation of mucosal cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary regulator of iron transport in the body?

    <p>Hepcidin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a cause of iron deficiency?

    <p>Genetic predisposition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the proportion of body iron found in red blood cells?

    <p>70%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which hepcidin regulates iron transport?

    <p>By binding to ferroportin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of high hepcidin levels on iron transport?

    <p>Decreased iron transport to transferrin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of ferroportin in iron transport?

    <p>To transport iron across the basolateral membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of thrombi occurring in heart chambers or in the aortic lumen?

    <p>They are designated as mural thrombi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between arterial and venous thrombi?

    <p>Arterial thrombi are typically nonocclusive, while venous thrombi are occlusive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process by which older thrombi become organized and recanalized?

    <p>Organization and recanalization by the ingrowth of endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and fibroblasts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the laminations seen in thrombi, also known as lines of Zahn?

    <p>They represent the formation of the thrombus in flowing blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of a venous thrombus in terms of blood flow to the affected area?

    <p>Decreased blood flow to the affected area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which endothelial injury contributes to thrombus formation in the arterial circulation?

    <p>Exposure of the subendothelial ECM and release of tissue factor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of dysfunctional endothelial cells in the context of thrombus formation?

    <p>Increased production of procoagulant factors and decreased production of anticoagulant effectors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of thrombus formation in the venous circulation?

    <p>Stasis or turbulent blood flow contributes to thrombus formation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which Virchow's triad contributes to thrombus formation?

    <p>All three mechanisms work together to form a thrombus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary abnormality that leads to thrombus formation in the context of endothelial dysfunction?

    <p>Disturbance in the dynamic balance of the prothombotic and antithrombotic activities of endothelium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of Superficial Vein Thrombosis regarding embolization?

    <p>They rarely embolise to the lungs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason why Deep Vein Thrombosis is more serious than Superficial Vein Thrombosis?

    <p>Because it is more likely to embolise to the lungs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which thrombi from Deep Vein Thrombosis are carried to the pulmonary arterial vasculature?

    <p>Through the right side of the heart</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of a large embolus occluding the main pulmonary artery?

    <p>It causes sudden death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary diagnostic test used to diagnose Deep Vein Thrombosis?

    <p>Ultrasound</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary contributor to the development of venous thrombi?

    <p>Stasis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of turbulence on blood flow?

    <p>Disrupts laminar flow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of endothelial activation in thrombosis?

    <p>Enhanced pro-coagulant activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic morphology of thrombi?

    <p>Can develop anywhere in the cardiovascular system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is hypercoagulability defined as?

    <p>Any alteration of the coagulation pathways that predisposes to thrombosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary outcome of the invasion of fibroblasts into the blood clot?

    <p>Formation of connective tissue throughout the clot</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determines whether the blood will coagulate?

    <p>The balance between procoagulant and anticoagulant factors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the breakdown of fibrin in the clot?

    <p>Formation of D-dimer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of co-factors in blood coagulation?

    <p>To aid blood coagulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary outcome of the activation of procoagulant factors in the tissue?

    <p>Development of a blood clot</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of fibrin-stabilizing factor in the formation of a blood clot?

    <p>To form covalent bonds between fibrin monomers and cross-linkages between adjacent fibrin fibres</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the contraction of a blood clot, expressing most of the fluid within it?

    <p>The formation of serum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of platelets in the formation of a blood clot?

    <p>To attach to fibrin fibres and bond different fibres together, contributing to clot retraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of thrombin on the formation of a blood clot?

    <p>It activates fibrin-stabilizing factor and accelerates clot retraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the composition of the fluid expressed from a blood clot after contraction?

    <p>It has had its fibrinogen and most of the other clotting factors removed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for when an embolus passes through an interatrial or interventricular defect and gains access to the systemic circulation?

    <p>Paradoxical embolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of a large pulmonary embolism?

    <p>Instantaneous death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which emboli cause respiratory compromise?

    <p>Intrapulmonary dead space</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which emboli cause hemodynamic compromise?

    <p>Reduction in cross-sectional area of the pulmonary arterial bed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary diagnostic test for pulmonary embolism?

    <p>Spiral computed tomographic angiographic Ventilation-perfusion scan</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary treatment for pulmonary embolism?

    <p>Low Molecular Weight Heparin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which Prothrombin Time is affected in coagulation disorders?

    <p>Deficiency in VII, X, V, prothrombin, and fibrinogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary consequence of a prolonged Prothrombin Time?

    <p>Deficiency in VII, X, V, prothrombin, and fibrinogen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of thrombolysis in the treatment of pulmonary embolism?

    <p>Rapid dissolution of the thrombus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary complication of untreated pulmonary embolism?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of a block of two or more of the three main fascicles of the Bundle of His?

    <p>Bifascicular block</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following can cause Left Bundle Branch Block?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between a left bundle branch block and a left posterior hemiblock?

    <p>Left bundle branch block is a block in the left bundle branch, while left posterior hemiblock is a block in the left posterior fascicle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of a block in the right bundle branch?

    <p>Right bundle branch block</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a block of any of the three fascicles of the left bundle branch?

    <p>Hemiblock</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main component of fascia that keeps the tissues in place?

    <p>Collagen</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of increased pressure within a fascial compartment?

    <p>Ischaemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the theory that explains how increased tissue pressure can lead to vessel collapse?

    <p>Critical closing pressure theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the space within a fascia?

    <p>Compartment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of compartment syndrome?

    <p>Bleeding or swelling within an enclosed bundle of fibers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the widening of the QRS complex in a right bundle branch block?

    <p>Slower conduction through the myocardium of the left ventricle</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between an incomplete bundle branch block and a complete bundle branch block?

    <p>The degree of widening of the QRS complex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the block that occurs within the fascicles of the left bundle branch?

    <p>Hemiblock</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the structure that gives rise to the right and left bundle branches?

    <p>Bundle of His</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe blocks that occur below the AV node?

    <p>Infra-Hisian blocks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of chemical acid-base buffer systems in the body?

    <p>To combine with acid or base to prevent excessive changes in H+ concentration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens when the H+ concentration increases in the body?

    <p>The buffer binds more H+ to decrease the concentration of free H+</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the kidneys in regulating H+ concentration in the body?

    <p>To excrete either acid or alkaline urine to readjust the extracellular fluid H+ concentration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of excessive excretion of acid by the kidneys?

    <p>Metabolic alkalosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the reaction that occurs when the H+ concentration decreases in the body?

    <p>Buffer ⇌ H Buffer + H+</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for excess removal of H+ from the body fluids?

    <p>Alkalosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the normal pH of arterial blood?

    <p>7.4</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of acid rapidly dissociates and releases large amounts of H+ in solution?

    <p>Strong Acid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the formula for calculating pH?

    <p>pH = -log[H+]</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the product of cell metabolism that contributes to the slightly lower pH within cells?

    <p>H2CO3</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the veins when tissue pressure rises?

    <p>They collapse due to their thin walls</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of an increase in venous pressure?

    <p>A decrease in tissue blood flow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is released when muscles become anoxic?

    <p>Histamine-like substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of transudation of plasma into the intramuscular compartment?

    <p>An increase in intracompartmental pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the lymphatic drainage system in compartment syndrome?

    <p>To compensate for increased pressure in the muscular compartment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary cause of compartment syndrome?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the Swan-Ganz catheter?

    <p>To measure pulmonary artery pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to arterial flow into the compartment in the late stages of compartment syndrome?

    <p>It is compromised</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of high pressure in the arterial system?

    <p>Continuing blood flow into the compartment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of vasodilation in anoxic muscles?

    <p>Increased endothelial permeability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the Swan-Ganz catheter?

    <p>To evaluate effects of drugs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following veins is a possible entry point for the catheter?

    <p>Femoral vein</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the inflatable balloon at the tip of the Swan-Ganz catheter?

    <p>To facilitate placement into the pulmonary artery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of colloids in fluid replacement therapy?

    <p>They are used as a blood plasma replacement if a significant amount of blood has been lost</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of obtaining a chest X-ray after catheter insertion?

    <p>To check the final position of the catheter</p> Signup and view all the answers

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