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Questions and Answers
Which factors are important in the occurrence of inflammatory, allergic, and tumor diseases of the bronchi and lungs?
Which factors are important in the occurrence of inflammatory, allergic, and tumor diseases of the bronchi and lungs?
What is the main role of aerodynamic filtration in the respiratory system?
What is the main role of aerodynamic filtration in the respiratory system?
Which cellular factor provides local protection to the respiratory system?
Which cellular factor provides local protection to the respiratory system?
Which diseases are primarily caused by viruses and bacteria affecting the bronchi and lungs?
Which diseases are primarily caused by viruses and bacteria affecting the bronchi and lungs?
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What plays a significant role in the occurrence of inflammatory diseases of the bronchi and lungs?
What plays a significant role in the occurrence of inflammatory diseases of the bronchi and lungs?
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What is the role of surfactant in the respiratory system?
What is the role of surfactant in the respiratory system?
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Besides pathogenic factors, what also influences the occurrence of respiratory diseases?
Besides pathogenic factors, what also influences the occurrence of respiratory diseases?
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Which examination method is crucial for diagnosing respiratory diseases involving the bronchi and lungs?
Which examination method is crucial for diagnosing respiratory diseases involving the bronchi and lungs?
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What do biological pathogens primarily cause in the bronchi and lungs?
What do biological pathogens primarily cause in the bronchi and lungs?
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What can lead to the development of destructive-ulcerative bronchitis?
What can lead to the development of destructive-ulcerative bronchitis?
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Which pathological process involves thickening of the bronchial wall due to infiltration by immune cells?
Which pathological process involves thickening of the bronchial wall due to infiltration by immune cells?
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Which protective barrier is crucial for carrying out mucocellular transport in the bronchial tree?
Which protective barrier is crucial for carrying out mucocellular transport in the bronchial tree?
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What is a common complication associated with acute bronchitis?
What is a common complication associated with acute bronchitis?
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What do hereditary insufficiencies of protective barriers of the respiratory system primarily affect?
What do hereditary insufficiencies of protective barriers of the respiratory system primarily affect?
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Which type of pneumonia is characterized by exudate consisting of decaying neutrophils with fibrin threads and mucus?
Which type of pneumonia is characterized by exudate consisting of decaying neutrophils with fibrin threads and mucus?
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What is a common route of development for bronchopneumonia?
What is a common route of development for bronchopneumonia?
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Which of the following can cause bronchopneumonia?
Which of the following can cause bronchopneumonia?
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What can disrupt the drainage function of the bronchi in bronchopneumonia?
What can disrupt the drainage function of the bronchi in bronchopneumonia?
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Where do foci of inflammation typically occur in bronchopneumonia?
Where do foci of inflammation typically occur in bronchopneumonia?
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What is a common cause of death in lobar pneumonia?
What is a common cause of death in lobar pneumonia?
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What leads to an abortive course and reduced complications in lobar pneumonia under modern treatment methods?
What leads to an abortive course and reduced complications in lobar pneumonia under modern treatment methods?
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What is the main process described in the resolution stage of croupous pneumonia?
What is the main process described in the resolution stage of croupous pneumonia?
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Which stage of pneumonia involves the accumulation of neutrophils, fibrin strands, and pneumococci in the alveoli?
Which stage of pneumonia involves the accumulation of neutrophils, fibrin strands, and pneumococci in the alveoli?
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What is carnification in the context of croupous pneumonia?
What is carnification in the context of croupous pneumonia?
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What is a common extrapulmonary complication observed with lymphogenous generalization in croupous pneumonia?
What is a common extrapulmonary complication observed with lymphogenous generalization in croupous pneumonia?
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Which stage of pneumonia precedes the gray hepatization stage according to the text?
Which stage of pneumonia precedes the gray hepatization stage according to the text?
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What characterizes the lung tissue during red hepatization?
What characterizes the lung tissue during red hepatization?
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What happens when masses of fibrin in the alveoli undergo organization due to impaired fibrinolytic function of neutrophils?
What happens when masses of fibrin in the alveoli undergo organization due to impaired fibrinolytic function of neutrophils?
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What is the primary factor that contributes to the development of pneumonia?
What is the primary factor that contributes to the development of pneumonia?
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Which type of pneumonia is characterized by fibrinous exudate in the alveoli?
Which type of pneumonia is characterized by fibrinous exudate in the alveoli?
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What is a common risk factor for acute pneumonia apart from infection of the upper respiratory tract?
What is a common risk factor for acute pneumonia apart from infection of the upper respiratory tract?
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Which type of pneumonia is most commonly associated with primary localization in the lungs?
Which type of pneumonia is most commonly associated with primary localization in the lungs?
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Which stage of croupous pneumonia is characterized by gray hepatization?
Which stage of croupous pneumonia is characterized by gray hepatization?
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What causes lobar (croupous) pneumonia in rare cases?
What causes lobar (croupous) pneumonia in rare cases?
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Which feature distinguishes secondary acute pneumonia from primary acute pneumonia?
Which feature distinguishes secondary acute pneumonia from primary acute pneumonia?
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Which type of pneumonia is characterized by accumulations of exudate in alveoli with an admixture of mucus, neutrophils, macrophages, and desquamated alveolar epithelium?
Which type of pneumonia is characterized by accumulations of exudate in alveoli with an admixture of mucus, neutrophils, macrophages, and desquamated alveolar epithelium?
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In newborns with pneumonia, what is the name given to the compacted fibrin structures that often form on the surface of alveoli?
In newborns with pneumonia, what is the name given to the compacted fibrin structures that often form on the surface of alveoli?
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Which age group is likely to experience pneumonia localized mainly in the posterior parts of the lungs adjacent to the spine?
Which age group is likely to experience pneumonia localized mainly in the posterior parts of the lungs adjacent to the spine?
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Why do foci of pneumonia in children generally resolve more easily compared to people older than 50 years?
Why do foci of pneumonia in children generally resolve more easily compared to people older than 50 years?
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Which type of bronchopneumonia is caused by Staphylococcus aureus and tends to have a severe course?
Which type of bronchopneumonia is caused by Staphylococcus aureus and tends to have a severe course?
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In which lung segments is inflammation usually localized in Staphylococcal bronchopneumonia?
In which lung segments is inflammation usually localized in Staphylococcal bronchopneumonia?
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What type of inflammation develops around foci of necrosis in Staphylococcal bronchopneumonia?
What type of inflammation develops around foci of necrosis in Staphylococcal bronchopneumonia?
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Which age group experiences slower resorption of pneumonia foci due to age-related changes in the lymphatic system?
Which age group experiences slower resorption of pneumonia foci due to age-related changes in the lymphatic system?
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What are hyaline membranes composed of in newborns with pneumonia?
What are hyaline membranes composed of in newborns with pneumonia?
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What is the function that helps resolve foci of pneumonia more easily in children?
What is the function that helps resolve foci of pneumonia more easily in children?
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What structural changes occur in the bronchial wall with prolonged bronchitis?
What structural changes occur in the bronchial wall with prolonged bronchitis?
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What is a characteristic feature of polyposis chronic bronchitis?
What is a characteristic feature of polyposis chronic bronchitis?
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What is a common outcome of delayed contents in the bronchi and bronchioles?
What is a common outcome of delayed contents in the bronchi and bronchioles?
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What happens when the connective tissue grows in the wall of the bronchus in chronic bronchitis?
What happens when the connective tissue grows in the wall of the bronchus in chronic bronchitis?
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What is a consequence of cellular inflammatory infiltration in the wall of the bronchus?
What is a consequence of cellular inflammatory infiltration in the wall of the bronchus?
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Which condition arises from the cellular infiltrates in the mucous membrane of the bronchi with chronic bronchitis?
Which condition arises from the cellular infiltrates in the mucous membrane of the bronchi with chronic bronchitis?
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What contributes to the development of polyposis chronic bronchitis?
What contributes to the development of polyposis chronic bronchitis?
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What is a notable feature seen in saccular or cylindrical bronchiectasis with prolonged course of bronchitis?
What is a notable feature seen in saccular or cylindrical bronchiectasis with prolonged course of bronchitis?
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What structural transformation occurs with metaplasia of integumentary prismatic epithelium into stratified squamous?
What structural transformation occurs with metaplasia of integumentary prismatic epithelium into stratified squamous?
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How does granulation tissue affect the muscle layer in deforming chronic bronchitis?
How does granulation tissue affect the muscle layer in deforming chronic bronchitis?
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What type of lung abscess is usually preceded by necrosis of inflamed lung tissue and results in the formation of an abscess cavity?
What type of lung abscess is usually preceded by necrosis of inflamed lung tissue and results in the formation of an abscess cavity?
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Which mechanism of chronic nonspecific lung diseases is associated with the development of fibrous alveolitis or pneumonitis?
Which mechanism of chronic nonspecific lung diseases is associated with the development of fibrous alveolitis or pneumonitis?
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Which lung segment is acute lung abscess most commonly localized in?
Which lung segment is acute lung abscess most commonly localized in?
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What distinguishes bronchogenic lung abscesses from bronchopneumonia?
What distinguishes bronchogenic lung abscesses from bronchopneumonia?
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Which type of pneumonia can complicate pneumonia and lung abscess when putrefactive microorganisms are attached?
Which type of pneumonia can complicate pneumonia and lung abscess when putrefactive microorganisms are attached?
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In what chronic nonspecific lung disease is a local character initially seen in infectious nature?
In what chronic nonspecific lung disease is a local character initially seen in infectious nature?
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Which disease is represented by chronic bronchitis, bronchiectasis, pulmonary emphysema, and bronchial asthma among chronic nonspecific lung diseases?
Which disease is represented by chronic bronchitis, bronchiectasis, pulmonary emphysema, and bronchial asthma among chronic nonspecific lung diseases?
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What pathological process involves moist necrosis in the lung tissue with a bad odor emitted?
What pathological process involves moist necrosis in the lung tissue with a bad odor emitted?
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What is a characteristic feature of chronic bronchitis that leads to the development of bronchiectasis?
What is a characteristic feature of chronic bronchitis that leads to the development of bronchiectasis?
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What is the common outcome of acute lung abscess that takes a chronic course?
What is the common outcome of acute lung abscess that takes a chronic course?
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What is a common outcome of viral bronchopneumonias due to their disruption of the epithelial barrier?
What is a common outcome of viral bronchopneumonias due to their disruption of the epithelial barrier?
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What is a life-threatening aspect of bronchopneumonia in terms of patient age?
What is a life-threatening aspect of bronchopneumonia in terms of patient age?
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Which form of interstitial pneumonia is characterized by inflammation spreading to the interlobular septa and can lead to pleurogenic complications?
Which form of interstitial pneumonia is characterized by inflammation spreading to the interlobular septa and can lead to pleurogenic complications?
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In what scenario does peribronchial pneumonia typically manifest?
In what scenario does peribronchial pneumonia typically manifest?
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What characteristic feature distinguishes interalveolar (interstitial) pneumonia from other interstitial pneumonias?
What characteristic feature distinguishes interalveolar (interstitial) pneumonia from other interstitial pneumonias?
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What is a possible outcome of chronic interlobular pneumonia due to the appearance of fibrous connective tissue?
What is a possible outcome of chronic interlobular pneumonia due to the appearance of fibrous connective tissue?
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What distinguishes interlobular pneumonia from peribronchial pneumonia in terms of inflammation spread?
What distinguishes interlobular pneumonia from peribronchial pneumonia in terms of inflammation spread?
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What is a characteristic feature of Streptococcal bronchopneumonia?
What is a characteristic feature of Streptococcal bronchopneumonia?
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What distinguishes Pneumococcal bronchopneumonia from other types?
What distinguishes Pneumococcal bronchopneumonia from other types?
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Which type of bronchopneumonia is most commonly caused by Candida fungi?
Which type of bronchopneumonia is most commonly caused by Candida fungi?
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What characterizes the exudate in cases of Viral bronchopneumonia?
What characterizes the exudate in cases of Viral bronchopneumonia?
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What is a common feature of fungal bronchopneumonia caused by Candida fungi?
What is a common feature of fungal bronchopneumonia caused by Candida fungi?
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What differentiates RNA-containing viruses from DNA-containing viruses in Viral bronchopneumonia?
What differentiates RNA-containing viruses from DNA-containing viruses in Viral bronchopneumonia?
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What is found at the periphery of pneumonia foci in Viral bronchopneumonia?
What is found at the periphery of pneumonia foci in Viral bronchopneumonia?
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What distinguishes DNA-containing viruses' behavior inside cells in Viral bronchopneumonia?
What distinguishes DNA-containing viruses' behavior inside cells in Viral bronchopneumonia?
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What is a possible consequence of Staphylococcal bronchopneumonia?
What is a possible consequence of Staphylococcal bronchopneumonia?
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Which type of pneumonia involves RNA and DNA viruses invading the respiratory tract epithelium?
Which type of pneumonia involves RNA and DNA viruses invading the respiratory tract epithelium?
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What is the term used to describe a lung with a fine-meshed appearance resembling a honeycomb?
What is the term used to describe a lung with a fine-meshed appearance resembling a honeycomb?
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Which enzyme deficiency is genetically determined and leads to insufficiency of elastic and collagen fibers in emphysema?
Which enzyme deficiency is genetically determined and leads to insufficiency of elastic and collagen fibers in emphysema?
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What condition in emphysema leads to the mucous plug allowing air to enter the alveoli when inhaled but not allowing it to exit during exhalation?
What condition in emphysema leads to the mucous plug allowing air to enter the alveoli when inhaled but not allowing it to exit during exhalation?
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What characterizes the lung tissue during the presence of panacinar emphysema?
What characterizes the lung tissue during the presence of panacinar emphysema?
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What is the outcome of the so-called valve-like mechanism activation in emphysema?
What is the outcome of the so-called valve-like mechanism activation in emphysema?
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In chronic diffuse obstructive pulmonary emphysema, what is the primary cause of excess air in the lungs?
In chronic diffuse obstructive pulmonary emphysema, what is the primary cause of excess air in the lungs?
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What structural changes occur in the walls of the acinus during centroacinar emphysema?
What structural changes occur in the walls of the acinus during centroacinar emphysema?
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What happens to the interalveolar pores and capillaries in lungs affected by emphysema?
What happens to the interalveolar pores and capillaries in lungs affected by emphysema?
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What is a common outcome of prolonged bronchiectasis besides the development of amyloidosis?
What is a common outcome of prolonged bronchiectasis besides the development of amyloidosis?
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What is the primary pathological process that leads to the development of chronic diffuse obstructive pulmonary emphysema?
What is the primary pathological process that leads to the development of chronic diffuse obstructive pulmonary emphysema?
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What is the histological sign of congenital bronchiectasis?
What is the histological sign of congenital bronchiectasis?
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How do acquired bronchiectasis usually form?
How do acquired bronchiectasis usually form?
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What leads to the formation of saccular bronchiectasis?
What leads to the formation of saccular bronchiectasis?
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Which condition leads to the development of cylindrical bronchiectasis?
Which condition leads to the development of cylindrical bronchiectasis?
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What distinguishes acquired bronchiectasis from congenital bronchiectasis?
What distinguishes acquired bronchiectasis from congenital bronchiectasis?
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What causes the bulging of the bronchial wall in saccular bronchiectasis?
What causes the bulging of the bronchial wall in saccular bronchiectasis?
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What contributes to the development of acquired bronchiectasis?
What contributes to the development of acquired bronchiectasis?
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How does intrabronchial pressure affect the formation of cylindrical bronchiectasis?
How does intrabronchial pressure affect the formation of cylindrical bronchiectasis?
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What distinguishes congenital from acquired bronchiectasis?
What distinguishes congenital from acquired bronchiectasis?
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Why does acquired bronchiectasis develop in areas of unresolved pneumonia?
Why does acquired bronchiectasis develop in areas of unresolved pneumonia?
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What is the main reason behind the development of hypertrophy of the right heart in chronic obstructive emphysema?
What is the main reason behind the development of hypertrophy of the right heart in chronic obstructive emphysema?
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What distinguishes chronic focal emphysema from perifocal emphysema?
What distinguishes chronic focal emphysema from perifocal emphysema?
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Which type of emphysema is typically observed as a result of the removal of part of a lung?
Which type of emphysema is typically observed as a result of the removal of part of a lung?
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What distinguishes primary panacinar emphysema from senile emphysema?
What distinguishes primary panacinar emphysema from senile emphysema?
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What characteristic feature differentiates interstitial emphysema from other types of emphysema?
What characteristic feature differentiates interstitial emphysema from other types of emphysema?
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What is a common outcome of bullous emphysema located under the pleura?
What is a common outcome of bullous emphysema located under the pleura?
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Why does vicarious (compensatory) emphysema develop in one lung after the removal of part or all of another lung?
Why does vicarious (compensatory) emphysema develop in one lung after the removal of part or all of another lung?
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'Subcutaneous emphysema' is a characteristic feature associated with which type of emphysema?
'Subcutaneous emphysema' is a characteristic feature associated with which type of emphysema?
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'Hypertrophy of the structural elements' is a common feature observed in which type of emphysema?
'Hypertrophy of the structural elements' is a common feature observed in which type of emphysema?
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What is the primary mechanism by which an attack of bronchial asthma develops?
What is the primary mechanism by which an attack of bronchial asthma develops?
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What is the main histological feature observed in the walls of the bronchi during an acute period of bronchial asthma?
What is the main histological feature observed in the walls of the bronchi during an acute period of bronchial asthma?
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Which cell type is NOT typically found infiltrating the mucous membrane and submucosal layer during an acute attack of bronchial asthma?
Which cell type is NOT typically found infiltrating the mucous membrane and submucosal layer during an acute attack of bronchial asthma?
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What is a common outcome observed in the lung tissue during repeated attacks of bronchial asthma?
What is a common outcome observed in the lung tissue during repeated attacks of bronchial asthma?
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Which histological feature distinguishes chronic obstructive pulmonary emphysema from chronic bronchitis?
Which histological feature distinguishes chronic obstructive pulmonary emphysema from chronic bronchitis?
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What distinguishes fibrosing (fibrous) alveolitis from other forms of diffuse pulmonary fibrosis?
What distinguishes fibrosing (fibrous) alveolitis from other forms of diffuse pulmonary fibrosis?
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What is the main factor considered to cause bronchial asthma?
What is the main factor considered to cause bronchial asthma?
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When does atopic bronchial asthma occur?
When does atopic bronchial asthma occur?
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What characterizes infectious-allergic bronchial asthma?
What characterizes infectious-allergic bronchial asthma?
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What is the leading participation in the development of bronchial asthma?
What is the leading participation in the development of bronchial asthma?
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What distinguishes atopic bronchial asthma from infectious-allergic bronchial asthma?
What distinguishes atopic bronchial asthma from infectious-allergic bronchial asthma?
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Which type of bronchial asthma occurs when exposed to allergens through the respiratory tract?
Which type of bronchial asthma occurs when exposed to allergens through the respiratory tract?
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What is the main consequence of cellular infiltration in the alveolar interstitium?
What is the main consequence of cellular infiltration in the alveolar interstitium?
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Which condition is characterized by bronchial patency impairment due to allergic reaction in the bronchial tree?
Which condition is characterized by bronchial patency impairment due to allergic reaction in the bronchial tree?
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What is a common outcome of pneumofibrosis due to vascular sclerosis in the lung tissue?
What is a common outcome of pneumofibrosis due to vascular sclerosis in the lung tissue?
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What process contributes to the development of panacinar emphysema and bronchiolectasis?
What process contributes to the development of panacinar emphysema and bronchiolectasis?
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What is the primary factor that activates the collagen-forming function of fibroblasts contributing to pneumofibrosis?
What is the primary factor that activates the collagen-forming function of fibroblasts contributing to pneumofibrosis?
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Which form of bronchial asthma occurs when the body is exposed to allergens through the respiratory tract?
Which form of bronchial asthma occurs when the body is exposed to allergens through the respiratory tract?
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What is the primary etiological factor of toxic fibrosing alveolitis?
What is the primary etiological factor of toxic fibrosing alveolitis?
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In fibrosing alveolitis, what immunopathological process involves damage to the capillaries of the lungs?
In fibrosing alveolitis, what immunopathological process involves damage to the capillaries of the lungs?
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Which lung disease is characterized by a primary inflammatory process in the interalveolar pulmonary interstitium?
Which lung disease is characterized by a primary inflammatory process in the interalveolar pulmonary interstitium?
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What is a characteristic feature of the pathological anatomy of fibrosing alveolitis during the stage of pneumonitis?
What is a characteristic feature of the pathological anatomy of fibrosing alveolitis during the stage of pneumonitis?
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Which lung disease is associated with Hamman-Rich syndrome, especially in its chronic forms?
Which lung disease is associated with Hamman-Rich syndrome, especially in its chronic forms?
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What is a significant difference between exogenous allergic alveolitis and toxic fibrosing alveolitis in terms of etiology?
What is a significant difference between exogenous allergic alveolitis and toxic fibrosing alveolitis in terms of etiology?
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What is the primary pathological process associated with fibrosing alveolitis?
What is the primary pathological process associated with fibrosing alveolitis?
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In the context of fibrosing alveolitis, what represents the third stage of morphological changes in the lungs?
In the context of fibrosing alveolitis, what represents the third stage of morphological changes in the lungs?
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What is a common etiological factor of exogenous allergic alveolitis?
What is a common etiological factor of exogenous allergic alveolitis?
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Which condition is considered a manifestation of fibrosing alveolitis in systemic connective tissue diseases?
Which condition is considered a manifestation of fibrosing alveolitis in systemic connective tissue diseases?
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What process can occur in the interstitium and vessel walls during granulomatous alveolitis?
What process can occur in the interstitium and vessel walls during granulomatous alveolitis?
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Which phase in the lung biopsy findings indicates an increasing infiltration of neutrophils, lymphocytes, and macrophages?
Which phase in the lung biopsy findings indicates an increasing infiltration of neutrophils, lymphocytes, and macrophages?
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What leads to the release of biologically active substances from effector cells in response to the antigen-antibody complex?
What leads to the release of biologically active substances from effector cells in response to the antigen-antibody complex?
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What is the main cellular infiltrate found in the bronchial mucosa during an acute attack of bronchial asthma?
What is the main cellular infiltrate found in the bronchial mucosa during an acute attack of bronchial asthma?
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What is a characteristic feature of chronic bronchial asthma that contributes to obstructing the airways?
What is a characteristic feature of chronic bronchial asthma that contributes to obstructing the airways?
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What is a common feature associated with the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary emphysema?
What is a common feature associated with the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary emphysema?
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What is a characteristic change seen in the lung tissue during an acute attack of bronchial asthma?
What is a characteristic change seen in the lung tissue during an acute attack of bronchial asthma?
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Which immunohistochemical study finding is associated with allergic inflammation in the bronchi?
Which immunohistochemical study finding is associated with allergic inflammation in the bronchi?
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What is a characteristic feature of the stage of disorganization of alveolar structures and pneumofibrosis?
What is a characteristic feature of the stage of disorganization of alveolar structures and pneumofibrosis?
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What is the consequence of pneumofibrosis due to vascular sclerosis in the lung tissue?
What is the consequence of pneumofibrosis due to vascular sclerosis in the lung tissue?
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What pathology is associated with the formation of cysts with fibrous-altered walls in place of alveoli?
What pathology is associated with the formation of cysts with fibrous-altered walls in place of alveoli?
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What condition typically results from the progression of pneumofibrosis in the lung tissue?
What condition typically results from the progression of pneumofibrosis in the lung tissue?
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Which process contributes to the development of panacinar emphysema at the stage of honeycomb lung?
Which process contributes to the development of panacinar emphysema at the stage of honeycomb lung?
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What is a common outcome of hypertension in the pulmonary circulation?
What is a common outcome of hypertension in the pulmonary circulation?
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What key change occurs in the lung tissue leading to the development of pneumocirrhosis?
What key change occurs in the lung tissue leading to the development of pneumocirrhosis?
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Study Notes
Bronchiectasis
- Expansion of the bronchi in a cylindrical or bag-like form, which can be congenital or acquired
- Congenital bronchiectasis is relatively rare (2-3% of COPD cases) and develops due to impaired formation of the bronchial tree
- Histological sign of congenital bronchiectasis is a disorderly arrangement of the structural elements of the bronchi in their wall
- Acquired bronchiectasis is a consequence of chronic bronchitis
- Forms of bronchiectasis:
- Saccular bronchiectasis: expansion of the bronchial lumen in the direction of least resistance
- Cylindrical bronchiectasis: diffuse expansion of the bronchial lumen
- Bronchiolectasis: inflammation of bronchioles
Emphysema
- Enlargement of airspaces in the lung, which can be classified into different types:
- Chronic focal emphysema: develops around old tuberculous foci, post-infarction scars
- Vicarious emphysema: develops in one lung after removal of part of it or another lung
- Primary (idiopathic) panacinar emphysema: rare, etiology unknown
- Senile emphysema: age-related, considered obstructive
- Interstitial emphysema: air enters interstitial tissue of the lung through ruptures of the alveoli
Fibrosing Alveolitis
- A heterogeneous group of lung diseases characterized by primary inflammatory process in the interalveolar pulmonary interstitium
- Types of fibrosing alveolitis:
- Idiopathic fibrosing alveolitis (Hamman-Rich disease)
- Exogenous allergic alveolitis (e.g. farmer's lung, pigeon breeder's lung)
- Toxic fibrosing alveolitis (associated with exposure to herbicides, mineral fertilizers, etc.)
- Pathogenesis: immunopathological processes, including immunocomplex damage to capillaries and cellular immune cytolysis
- Pathological anatomy: three stages of morphological changes in the lungs, including alveolitis, disorganization of alveolar structures and pneumofibrosis, and formation of a honeycomb lung
Respiratory Diseases
- Various clinical and morphological manifestations, including bronchitis, tracheitis, bronchiolitis, pneumonia
- Etiological factors: biological pathogens (viruses, bacteria), chemical and physical agents, hereditary factors, and age characteristics
- Protective barriers of the respiratory system:
- Aerodynamic filtration
- Humoral factors (secretory immunoglobulins, complement system, etc.)
- Cellular factors (alveolar macrophages, polymorphonuclear leukocytes, etc.)
- Methods for diagnosing respiratory diseases:
- Cytological and bacterioscopic examination of sputum
- Bronchoalveolar lavage
- Biopsy of the bronchi and lungs### Pleuropneumonia
- Caused by Friedlander's stick (Friedlander's pneumonia)
- Affects part of the lobe of the lung, often the upper one
- Exudate consists of decaying neutrophils with an admixture of fibrin threads, mucus, and looks like a viscous mucous mass
- Foci of necrosis appear in areas of inflammation, and abscesses form in their place
Bronchopneumonia
- Inflammation of the lungs, which develops in connection with bronchitis or bronchiolitis (bronchoalveolitis)
- Focal character, can be a morphological manifestation of both primary and secondary acute pneumonia
- Etiology: various microbial agents, chemical and physical factors
- Pathogenesis: associated with acute bronchitis or bronchiolitis, inflammation often spreads to the lung tissue intrabronchially or peribronchially
Pathological Anatomy of Bronchopneumonia
- Morphological changes: acute bronchitis or bronchiolitis, represented by various forms of catarrhal inflammation (serous, mucous, purulent, mixed)
- Mucous membrane becomes full-blooded and swollen, production of mucus by the glands and goblet cells increases sharply
- Integumentary prismatic epithelium of the mucous membrane is exfoliated, which leads to damage to the mucociliary mechanism of purification of the bronchial tree
- Walls of the bronchi and bronchioles thicken due to edema and cellular infiltration
Foci of Inflammation in Bronchopneumonia
- Usually occur in the posterior and posterior-lower segments of the lungs (II, VI, VIII, IX, X)
- Dense, gray-red on the cut
- Increase in capillary permeability, beginning of diapedesis of erythrocytes into the lumen of the alveoli
- Lung is somewhat compacted, sharply plethoric
Stages of Bronchopneumonia
- Stage of red hepatization (2nd day of illness)
- Stage of gray hepatization (4-6th day of illness)
- Resolution stage (9-11th day of illness)
Complications of Lobar Pneumonia
- Pulmonary complications: impaired fibrinolytic function of neutrophils, development of abscess and gangrene of the lung
- Extrapulmonary complications: generalization of infection, lymphogenous and hematogenous spread
Acute Bronchitis and Bronchopneumonia
- Depend on the depth of damage to the bronchial wall
- Serous and mucous bronchial catarrhs are easily reversible
- Bronchial wall destruction (purulent catarrh, destructive bronchitis and bronchiolitis) contributes to the development of pneumonia
Acute Pneumonia
- Etiology: diverse, but more often infectious agents
- Risk factors: infection, obstruction of the bronchial tree, immunodeficiencies, alcohol, smoking, and inhalation of toxic substances
- Primary acute pneumonia: independent disease or manifestation of another disease with nosological specifics
- Secondary acute pneumonia: complication of many diseases
Lobar Pneumonia
- Acute infectious-allergic disease, affecting one or more lobes of the lung
- Fibrinous exudate appears in the alveoli, and fibrinous overlays appear on the pleura
- Causative agents: pneumococci types I, II, III, and IV, Friedlander's diplobacillus
- Pathogenesis: autoinfection, sensitization of the body with pneumococci, and resolving factors
Bronchopneumonia in Different Age Periods
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In newborns: hyaline membranes, consisting of compacted fibrin, often form on the surface of the alveoli
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In weakened children: foci of inflammation are localized mainly in the posterior parts of the lungs
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In people older than 50 years: age-related reduction of the lymphatic system, resorption of foci of inflammation occurs slowly### Viral Bronchopneumonias
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Rarely exist in their pure form, as they disrupt the epithelial barrier, leading to secondary bacterial infection
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Complications depend on etiology, age, and general condition of the patient
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Pneumonia foci may be carnified or suppurated with abscess formation, leading to pleurisy or purulent pleurisy
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Especially life-threatening in early childhood and old age
Interstitial Pneumonia
- Characterized by inflammatory process in interstitial tissue (stroma) of the lung
- Can be a characteristic morphological manifestation of diseases (e.g., respiratory viral infections) or a complication of inflammatory processes in the lungs
- Three forms of interstitial pneumonia:
- Peribronchial: inflammatory process starts in the wall of bronchus, passes to peribronchial tissue, and extends to adjacent interalveolar septa
- Interlobular: inflammation spreads to interlobular septa, leading to thickening of the septa, and sometimes, a "stratification" of the lung into lobules
- Interstitial: characterized by inflammatory process in the interalveolar septa
Acute Destructive Processes in the Lungs
- Include abscess and gangrene of the lung
- Streptococcal bronchopneumonia: characterized by formation of foci closely associated with bronchioles, with neutrophils and fibrin in the exudate
- Pneumococcal bronchopneumonia: characterized by formation of foci closely associated with bronchioles, with neutrophils and fibrin in the exudate
- Fungal bronchopneumonia (pneumomycosis): caused by various fungi, with foci of different sizes, dense, grayish-pink in section
Chronic Bronchopulmonary Diseases
- Emphysema: characterized by chronic diffuse obstructive pulmonary emphysema
- Bronchiectasis: characterized by chronic inflammatory changes in the walls of bronchi, with purulent content in the cavity
- Emphysema: caused by excess air in the lungs, leading to an increase in their size
- Three types of emphysema:
- Chronic diffuse obstructive
- Chronic focal (perifocal, cicatricial)
- Vicarious (compensatory)
Bronchial Asthma
- Characterized by attacks of expiratory shortness of breath caused by an allergic reaction in the bronchial tree
- Etiology:
- Infectious diseases, especially of the upper respiratory tract
- Allergic rhinosinusitis
- Environmental influences
- Exposure to substances suspended in the air
- Psychogenic factors
- Classification:
- Atopic bronchial asthma
- Infectious-allergic bronchial asthma
Pneumofibrosis
- Characterized by growth of connective tissue in the lung
- Develops in areas of carnification of unresolved pneumonia, along the outflow of lymph from foci of inflammation
- Leads to hypertrophy of the right ventricle of the heart (cor pulmonale) and cardiac decompensation
Chronic Abscess
- Develops from an acute abscess and is localized in the II, VI, IX, and X segments of the right or left lung
- Structure of the wall of a chronic lung abscess does not differ from a chronic abscess of another localization
Chronic Pneumonia
- Characterized by a combination of areas of carnification and fibrosis, with cavities and bronchiectasis
- One of the features of chronic pneumonia is an unusual tendency to exacerbations, lymphatic vessels, and the presence of bronchiectasis and foci of suppuration
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Description
Learn about the variety of clinical and morphological manifestations of diseases affecting the respiratory organs, including factors such as etiology, age characteristics, and lung structure. Understand the role of biological pathogens like viruses and bacteria in causing inflammation in the bronchi and lungs.
