Research Methods for A-Level Psychology
38 Questions
0 Views

Choose a study mode

Play Quiz
Study Flashcards
Spaced Repetition
Chat to Lesson

Podcast

Play an AI-generated podcast conversation about this lesson

Questions and Answers

What is the primary purpose of a research aim?

  • To provide a detailed analysis of collected data.
  • To clearly state what the researcher intends to investigate. (correct)
  • To outline the specific steps of a study's methodology.
  • To formulate a testable prediction about variables.

    • Which of the following best describes a non-directional hypothesis?

  • It predicts the specific direction of a difference between conditions.
  • It predicts that there will be no difference between conditions.
  • It predicts that one condition is greater than the other condition.
  • It predicts a difference between conditions, but does not specify a direction. (correct)

    • What is the main purpose of using standardized procedures in research?

  • To allow researchers to have more control over participants.
  • To ensure consistency and enable replication of the study. (correct)
  • To reduce the number of participants needed for a study.
  • To provide more insightful results to benefit humanity.

    • Which design is most susceptible to order effects?

    <p>Repeated measures design (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'mundane realism' primarily refer to in research?

    <p>The extent to which a study resembles real-life situations. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key disadvantage of using an independent groups design?

    <p>It requires more participants than a repeated measures design. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a strength of using laboratory experiments?

    <p>Ease of replication due to high control of extraneous variables (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a confounding variable?

    <p>A variable that changes with the dependent variable, which makes it difficult to determine actual cause. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the potential issue of social desirability bias in research?

    <p>Participants altering responses to appear in a more favorable light. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A researcher aims to show a relationship between hours of study and exam performance. Which approach would be most suitable?

    <p>Applying a correlation to examine the relationship between two variables. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In statistical analysis, what does the 'range' of a data set represent?

    <p>The absolute difference between the highest and lowest measurements within the dataset. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which graphical representation would be most appropriate to show the distribution of exam scores in a large class?

    <p>A histogram plotting the frequency of scores occurring within specified ranges. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The mean, median, and mode are all equal in which type of distribution?

    <p>A normal distribution. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key limitation of case studies?

    <p>Their findings may not be generalizable due to their focus on specific instances. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does 'test-retest reliability' primarily assess in research?

    <p>The consistency of results over multiple uses of the same test. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When operationalizing behavioral categories, what is the main goal?

    <p>To define categories in clear and measurable terms. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the concept of 'concurrent validity'?

    <p>How much a test correlates with an established measure (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In hypothesis testing, what is the role of the 'null hypothesis'?

    <p>It suggests that differences in data are due to random error. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the outcome of committing a Type 1 error in the context of hypothesis testing?

    <p>Rejecting a true null hypothesis. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a key feature of the empirical method in science?

    <p>Gaining knowledge through direct observation or testing. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the concept of 'falsifiability' refer to in the scientific process?

    <p>The possibility that research could disprove a hypothesis. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical purpose of the 'Abstract section' in a scientific paper?

    <p>To provide a concise summary of the entire study. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of peer review in scientific research?

    <p>To evaluate the quality and rigor of research. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary limitation of using a field experiment in psychological research?

    <p>It is difficult to control extraneous variables resulting in decreased internal validity. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a study, if the participants become aware of the study's aims, which issue is most likely to affect the results?

    <p>Demand characteristics (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of using a double-blind design in a study?

    <p>To reduce both researcher bias and demand characteristics. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A researcher recruits participants for a study by posting notices at a local community center. Which type of sampling method was used?

    <p>Opportunity sampling (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of data offers the greatest potential for statistical analysis?

    <p>Quantitative data (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In psychological research, what does 'informed consent' mean?

    <p>Participants are made fully aware of the nature and aims of the study and agree to participate. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A researcher observes behavior in a schoolyard without the knowledge of the children. Which ethical concern is most relevant here?

    <p>Informed consent (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In an observational study, what does high 'interobserver reliability' indicate?

    <p>Two or more observers have consistent results. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of observation would be used if a researcher was joining football practice in order to study team dynamics?

    <p>Overt participant (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    If a researcher decides to use predetermined categories when observing behaviours, what type of observation is this?

    <p>Structured observation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is characterized by an naturally occurring independent variable that could be used to compare different groups?

    <p>Natural experiment (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A researcher is studying how long people spend on their phones, they decide to record their participant's screen time and what they’re doing every 30 seconds. What type of sampling technique are they using?

    <p>Time Sampling (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When might using secondary data be preferable for a researcher?

    <p>when the researcher has limited time and resources available. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In a structured interview, what is a primary disadvantage that is caused by the standardized method?

    <p>Reduced flexibility in exploring individual experiences. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    A study is conducted where participants are told that they will be evaluating new products. However, the true aim of the study is to measure participants stress levels under pressure. What ethical issue does this raise?

    <p>Deception. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Flashcards

    Hypothesis

    A testable statement about the relationship between variables, often predicting an outcome.

    Directional hypothesis

    A type of hypothesis that predicts the direction of the difference between two conditions.

    Independent variable

    A controlled factor that the researcher manipulates to see its effect on the dependent variable.

    Dependent variable

    The factor that is measured to see how it is affected by the independent variable.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Extraneous variables

    Factors that could affect the dependent variable but are not the focus of the study.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Pilot study

    A smaller version of a study used to test aspects of the design and make improvements before a full-scale experiment.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Confederate

    A person instructed by the researcher to act in a specific way during a study.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Repeated measures design

    An experimental design where all participants complete all conditions, minimizing participant number but introducing order effects like fatigue or practice.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Natural Experiment

    A study that uses a naturally occurring independent variable, allowing for comparison between different groups, but limiting causal inference.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Field Experiment

    A study conducted in a natural setting, offering high mundane realism but potentially sacrificing internal validity due to uncontrolled variables.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Single-blind Design

    Participants are unaware of the study's aims, minimizing demand characteristics.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Double-blind Design

    Both the participants and the researcher are unaware of the study's aims, further reducing bias.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Investigator Effects

    The unintentional influence of the researcher on participants' behavior, affecting the study's outcomes.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Demand Characteristics

    Cues that alert participants to the study's aims, potentially influencing their behavior and affecting the results.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Population

    The entire group of individuals that the researcher is interested in.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Sample

    A subset of the population drawn to represent the whole.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Generalization

    Applying findings from a particular study to the broader population of interest.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Bias

    A systematic distortion in findings that can affect the validity of results.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Systematic Sampling

    Selecting every nth person from a list, lacking true randomness unless a random starting point is used.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Opportunity Sampling

    Conveniently recruiting readily available participants, resulting in potentially unrepresentative samples.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Volunteer Sampling

    Individuals choose to participate, introducing volunteer bias due to self-selection.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Stratified Sampling

    Identifying subgroups within the population based on their frequency and randomly selecting from each group, offering greater representativeness but requiring more time and effort.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Random Sampling

    Each individual has an equal chance of being selected, minimizing bias but often challenging to implement.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Interviewer Bias

    The influence of the interviewer's expectations on participants' responses.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Social Desirability Bias

    Participants distorting their responses to present themselves in a favorable light.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Clear and Unbiased Questions

    Questions designed to be clear and easy to understand, avoiding any leading or suggestive language.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Closed Questions

    Questions with predetermined answer choices - simple to analyze, but limited in scope.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Open Questions

    Questions allowing participants to provide their own detailed answers - more complex to analyze, but richer in insights.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Correlation Hypothesis

    Examining the relationship between two measured variables.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Correlation Coefficient

    A numerical value between -1 and +1 indicating the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Significant Figures

    Simplifying large numbers for easier interpretation by reducing digits.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Mean

    The average value of a set of data.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Median

    The middle value in a set of data when arranged in order.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Mode

    The most frequently occurring value in a set of data.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Range

    The difference between the highest and lowest values in a set of data.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Standard Deviation

    A measure of the spread of data around the mean.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Normal Distribution

    A symmetrical bell-shaped distribution where the mean, median, and mode are all equal.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Skewed Distribution

    A distribution with one tail longer than the other, indicating asymmetry in the data.

    Signup and view all the flashcards

    Study Notes

    Research Methods for A-Level Psychology

    • The aim of a research study is a clear statement of the researcher's intended findings.
    • A hypothesis is a testable statement about the relationship between variables.
    • Standardized procedures ensure consistency across participants, enabling study replication.
    • Independent variables are controlled and manipulated by the researcher; dependent variables are measured for changes influenced by the independent variable.
    • Extraneous variables might affect the dependent variable but are not the focus of the study.

    Hypothesis Types

    • A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis predicts the difference direction between two conditions.
    • A non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis predicts a difference without specifying direction.
    • A pilot study tests design aspects, often without significant data collection.
    • A confederate is a researcher-instructed individual acting in a specific manner during the study.

    Variables and Validity

    • A confounding variable systematically varies with the independent variable, obscuring the true relationship between variables.
    • External validity refers to the generalizability of findings to other settings, populations, and times.
    • Internal validity assesses if observed effects are directly caused by the manipulation, not by extraneous factors.
    • Mundane realism and ecological validity describe the study's resemblance to real-life situations.

    Experimental Designs

    • Repeated measures design: All participants complete all conditions, reducing participant numbers but introducing order effects (fatigue, practice).
    • Independent groups design: Participants are assigned to separate groups, avoiding order effects but requiring more participants and less control over individual differences.
    • Matched pairs design: Participants are matched based on key characteristics, eliminating order effects, but requiring more time and effort.

    Types of Experiments

    • Laboratory experiment: Controlled setting, minimizing extraneous variables, allowing replication.
    • Field experiment: Natural setting, high mundane realism, but potentially lower internal validity due to uncontrolled factors.
    • Natural experiment: Naturally occurring independent variable, allows comparison but limits causal inference.
    • Quasi experiment: Studies a naturally occurring independent variable with pre-existing group differences, offering group comparisons but lacking internal validity and extraneous variable control.

    Experimental Issues

    • Demand characteristics: Cues that signal study aims, potentially affecting participant behavior.
    • Investigator effects: Unintentional researcher influence on participant behavior.

    Dealing with Experimental Issues

    • Single-blind design: Participants unaware of study aims, minimizing demand characteristics.
    • Double-blind design: Both participants and researchers unaware of aims, further reducing bias.
    • Experimental realism: Engaging tasks to minimize participant awareness of observation, promoting natural behavior.

    Sampling Methods

    • Population: The complete group of interest.
    • Sample: A subset of the population.
    • Generalization: Applying study findings to a larger population.
    • Bias: A systematic error affecting results' validity.

    Types of Sampling

    • Opportunity sampling: Conveniently recruiting available participants, potentially unrepresentative.
    • Random sampling: Each individual has an equal chance of selection, minimizing bias but challenging to implement.
    • Stratified sampling: Identifying and randomly selecting from subgroups to achieve representativeness, time-consuming and demanding.
    • Systematic sampling: Selecting every 'nth' individual (potentially biased if not random starting point).
    • Volunteer sampling: Participants self-select, introducing volunteer bias from self-selection.

    Types of Data

    • Primary data: Collected directly for the study, tailored but time-consuming.
    • Secondary data: Existing information, cost-effective but potentially irrelevant.
    • Quantitative data: Numerical, allowing statistical analysis.
    • Qualitative data: Verbal/observational, rich details but challenging to analyse and trend identify.

    Ethical Issues

    • Informed consent: Participants are fully aware of the study, ensuring voluntary participation.
    • Deception: Withholding information, requiring ethical approval and post-study debriefing.
    • Right to withdraw: Participants can leave at any point, ensuring autonomy and well-being.
    • Protection from harm: Participants avoid physical/psychological distress.
    • Confidentiality: Protecting participant information, minimizing identification risks.
    • Privacy: Participants control information about themselves.

    Observational Techniques

    • Controlled observation: Structured setting, controlling extraneous variables, potentially lower ecological validity.
    • Naturalistic observation: Natural setting, high ecological validity, but less control over extraneous variables.
    • Covert observation: Participants unaware they're observed, minimizing reactivity but raising ethical concerns.
    • Overt observation: Participants aware of observation, potentially influencing behavior.
    • Non-participant observation: Observer detached from the group.
    • Participant observation: Observer involved in activities, offering insights but potentially biasing observations.
    • Inter-observer reliability: Agreement between observers, ensuring consistency and accuracy.
    • Observer bias: Observer expectations affecting interpretation.

    Observational Design

    • Unstructured observation: Recording all relevant behavior, limited predefined categories.
    • Structured observation: Using predetermined categories and systems, promoting consistency and comparability.
    • Behavioral categories: Dividing target behavior into observable, measurable units.

    Examples of Observational Techniques

    • Meltzoff's animal study: Observing infant facial expressions for imitation understanding.
    • Strange situation study: Observing infant attachment behaviors in unfamiliar situations.

    Observational Sampling Techniques

    • Event sampling: Recording the frequency of specific behaviors.
    • Time sampling: Observing behavior at predetermined intervals.

    Self-Report Techniques

    • Structured interview: Pre-set questions, standardized, replicable but inflexible.
    • Unstructured interview: Open-ended questions, follow-up based on responses, greater depth, demanding interviewer skill.
    • Questionnaires: Written questions, large samples, but potential biases (self-selection and social desirability).

    Interviewer Bias and Social Desirability Bias

    • Interviewer bias: Interviewer expectation influencing participant responses.
    • Social desirability bias: Participants distort responses to present favourably.

    Questionnaire Design

    • Clear, unbiased questions.
    • Closed questions: Predefined answers, simplifying analysis, limiting responses.
    • Open questions: Participants' own answers, rich details, more complex analysis.

    Correlation and Mathematical Skills

    • Correlation hypothesis: Examining the relationship between two measured variables.
    • Correlation coefficient: Numerical value (-1 to +1) indicating relationship strength and direction.
    • Significant figures: Simplifying long numbers for interpretation.

    Measures of Central Tendency & Dispersion

    • Mean: Average value.
    • Median: Middle value.
    • Mode: Most frequent value.
    • Range: Difference between highest and lowest values.
    • Standard deviation: Spread of data around the mean.

    Data Presentation

    • Tables: Organizing quantitative data.
    • Bar charts: Representing categorical data (height reflects frequency).
    • Histograms: Representing continuous data, bars represent frequency within intervals.
    • Line graphs: Displaying continuous data over time.
    • Scattergrams: Plotting data points for two variables to visualize relationships.

    Normal Distribution

    • Symmetrical bell-shaped distribution, mean, median, and mode equal.
    • Skewed distribution: One tail longer, indicating asymmetry.

    Case Studies and Content Analysis

    • Case studies: In-depth exploration of a specific individual, etc., rich insights, limited generalizability.
    • Content analysis: Analyzing verbal/visual/written materials for themes/patterns, high ecological validity, prone to observer bias.

    Reliability

    • Test-retest reliability: Same test, different times, result consistency.
    • Inter-observer reliability: Agreement between multiple observers, consistency and accuracy.

    Improving Reliability

    • Operationalizing behavioral categories: Clear, measurable definitions of behavior.
    • Observer training: Providing practice and feedback on observation criteria application.

    Validity

    • Concurrent validity - Comparing an existing test or questionnaire with a new one.
    • Face validity - How well test items appear to measure what the test intends to measure.
    • Temporal validity - Ability to generalize research findings beyond the specific time period of the study.

    Probability

    • Probability - A numerical measure of the likelihood of specific events occurring.

    Hypothesis Testing

    • Null hypothesis - Assumes no relationship between variables in the population.
    • Alternative hypothesis - Testable statement about the relationship between two or more variables.
    • Type 1 error - Rejecting a true null hypothesis.
    • Type 2 error - Accepting a false null hypothesis.

    Features of Science

    • Empirical method - Evidence from observation or testing.
    • Objectivity - Unaffected by personal expectations.
    • Replicability - Verifiable by others.
    • Theories - Explain facts, generate testable predictions.
    • Hypotheses - Tested for validity.
    • Falsifiability - Ability to disconfirm a null hypothesis.
    • Paradigm shift - Scientific progress through major changes rather than gradual improvements.

    Peer Review

    • Peer review - Independent experts assess research quality, rigor.
    • Purpose of peer review - Funding allocation, publication decisions, assessing university rankings.

    Psychology and the Economy

    • Psychology's impact on the economy - Aids in avoiding irrational thinking, understanding employee behaviour.

    Scientific Writing - Key Sections

    • Abstract - Concise summary (around 150 words) of study aims, hypothesis, method, and results.
    • Introduction - Reviews literature, states research aims.
    • Method - Details research methods, design, participants, sampling etc. and ethical considerations.
    • Results - Details descriptive/inferential statistics, qualitative data.
    • Discussion - Analyzes outcomes, limitations, implications.
    • References - Citations of sources.

    Studying That Suits You

    Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.

    Quiz Team

    Description

    Test your knowledge on research methods in A-Level Psychology. This quiz covers key concepts such as hypotheses, variables, and standardized procedures crucial for conducting research. Prepare to understand the intricacies of psychological studies and their methodologies.

    More Like This

    Use Quizgecko on...
    Browser
    Open
    Browser
    Browser