Research Methodology Quiz

Describing Data

• Data needs to be organized and summarized before interpretation.
• Organization depends on research design (surveys, observational studies, experiments), number of variables, and grouping of observations.

Organizing Data for Computer Entry

• Data submitted for computer analysis should follow the format used by the software.
• Software typically requires numerical or alphabetical codes for independent and dependent variables.
• Independent variables can be coded by directly recording values (e.g., milligrams of a drug).

Graphing Data

• Graphs visually represent data.
• Basic graphs use two-dimensional axes (x-axis is horizontal, y-axis is vertical).
• Independent variables are on the x-axis; dependent variables are on the y-axis for experimental data.

Bar Graphs

• Bar graphs visually display values on the dependent variable.
• Each bar reflects a value of the dependent variable.
• Bars often represent estimates of population values (e.g., mean) from sample data.
• Error bars (whiskers) may indicate the precision of estimates, showing variability of scores around the estimate.

Line Graphs

• Line graphs use connected points to display data, suitable for continuous quantitative independent variables (e.g., time elapsed).
• They also show functional relationships between variables.
• Functional relationships can be causal.

Scatter Plots

• Scatter plots show the relationship between two dependent variables.
• Each data point represents a pair of scores.
• The graph often includes a "best-fitting" straight line representing the trend of the data points.

Pie Graphs

• Pie graphs are used for proportional or percentage data.
• They visually represent the proportion of each category.
• Exploded pie charts emphasize a particular category while maintaining the proportions.

Importance of Graphing Data

• Graphs clearly show relationships among variables.
• Choose appropriate statistics for your data; graph distributions and examine their shapes to guide statistic choices.

The Frequency Distribution

• Frequency distributions are lists of categories and the occurrence counts (frequencies) of data in those categories.
• They are used in analysis to organize data, often used for experimental or correlational studies.

Displaying Distributions (Histograms)

• Histograms portray distributions using bars or blocks that touch.
• The x-axis represents values (e.g., IQ scores).
• The y-axis represents the frequency of observations falling into each category.

Examining Your Distribution

• Examining a histogram helps understand data central tendency (where observations cluster), spread (how variable the data are), shape (symmetric, skewed, multiple peaks), and outliers (extreme values).

Skewed Distributions

• Skewed distributions have a longer "tail" extending in one direction.
• A distribution is positively skewed if the tail goes to the right (high values) and are skewed negatively if the tail points to low values.

Normal Distribution

• Normal distributions are symmetric and bell-shaped (bell curve).
• Many variables exhibit approximately normal distributions, useful for statistical analyses.

Descriptive Statistics: Measures of Center and Spread

• Measures of central tendency represent the general magnitude of data in a distribution.
• Common measures are mode (most frequent score), median (middle score), and mean (average score)
• The mean is more sensitive to all scores in a distribution than mode and median. The median is much less affected by extreme values.

Choosing Measures of Center

• Choose a measure of central tendency based on the scale of measurement and the shape of the data distribution. Normally, a mean is best under normal distribution, but if the data is skewed, the median is more appropriate.
• The median is less susceptible to skewed or outlying data.

Measures of Spread

• Measures of spread represent the variability of scores in a distribution.
• Examples include range (difference between highest and lowest scores), interquartile range (middle 50% of data points) variance (average squared deviation from the mean), and standard deviation (square root of the variance).

Choosing Measures of Spread

• Consider outliers when choosing a measure of spread. Interquartile range (IQR) is often better than range or standard deviation for skewed distributions due to their resistance to outliers.

Doing Survey Research

• Ethical treatment of participants is crucial in survey research. Anonymity ensures participant identity is not linked to survey results; confidentiality means survey data isn't revealed in individual form.

Designing Your Questionnaire

• Define the study topic clearly, use a broad but focused range of questions, and elicit the desired information without extraneous details.
• Demographics and items of interest to the researcher are included.

Writing Questionnaire Items

• Open-ended questions allow free-form responses.
• Restricted (closed-ended) items offer limited response options.
• Partially open-ended combines restricted responses with an "other" option. Rating scales are graded responses.

Assembling Your Questionnaire

• Create an engaging start to encourage respondents to continue.
• Group related items together, logically.
• Be mindful of order; sensitive information should be placed strategically to affect participant responses. Use appropriate graphics (e.g., arrows) to guide the respondents.

Administering Your Questionnaire

• Methods for administering questionnaires include mail, internet, telephone, group-administered, face-to-face interviews, and mixed-mode surveys.

Assessing Questionnaire Reliability

• Repeated administration assesses questionnaire reliability when the questionnaire produces reliable, similar results after multiple administrations.
• Split-half reliability is assessed by splitting the questionnaire into equivalent halves and assessing the correlation between halves.
• Increased items and standardized procedures enhance reliability.

Assessing Questionnaire Validity

• Content validity assesses the range of variables in a questionnaire.
• Construct validity tests if questionnaire scores agree with theoretical predictions.
• Criterion-related validity measures the correlation between the questionnaire and other validated measures.

Acquiring a Sample for Your Survey

• Representative samples accurately reflect the population's characteristics. Common sampling techniques include simple random sampling, stratified sampling (including proportionate sampling), cluster sampling, and systematic sampling.

Sample Size

• A large sample is needed for many variables or subdivided samples, while a smaller sample may suffice in exploratory studies with tight control over variables. The best approach is an economic sample-one that is valid with the fewest participants.
• Sample size needs to consider acceptable error and expected magnitude of population proportions.

Presentation Skills

• Effective presentations require thorough planning, preparation, and practice. The focus should be on the audience and the content, not the presentation itself.

Presentation Planning Suggestions

• Plan a clear introduction, main theme, and conclusion.
• Anticipate the audience's reaction to the content, goal of the presentation, and length.
• Choose a suitable presentation location.

Presentation Preparation Suggestions

• Research your content thoroughly.
• Practice your delivery—visual aid or not.
• Understand the audience—motivate their interest.
• Create a calm, confident attitude.
• Presentation must not be too long.
• Visual aids must be high quality.

Dealing with Questions

• Employ the TRACT technique (Thank, Repeat, Answer, Check, Thank again).
• Carefully listen, repeat, and correctly answer questions.
• Ensure full and satisfactory answers to deal with questions effectively.

Receiving Criticism

• Listen closely to criticism.
• Determine the validity of the feedback.
• Respond assertively and respectfully while explaining discrepancies.

Reporting Research Results

• Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion, and References sections are essential for reporting the results of the research process.

Article Parts

• Articles are composed of seven essential sections (title page, abstract, introduction, methods, results, discussion, and references).

Title Page Details

• The title page contains the running head (abbreviated title), page number, article title, author's name, affiliation, and any author notes.
• Information should be centered and appear on the top half of the page and between the margins.

Title Instructions

• Titles should be informative, concise, and clear. Avoid overly long or overly vague and general titles. Use only 12 words or less.

Author Name(s) and Affiliation(s)

• List authors' names (given name, middle initial, and family name) and affiliations (institutions).
• Use a consistent format.

The Abstract

• The abstract is a succinct summary.
• Abstracts should be accurate and nonevaluative; they simply report on the content of the study.
• Maintain a concise, coherent, and readable abstract using present tense unless describing manipulations or results.

Abstract Composition

• Start with the problem.
• Briefly state research objectives.
• Describe the subjects and methods (e.g. experimental design, equipment).
• Summarize the findings (statistically significant outcomes, effect sizes, confidence intervals)
• Conclude and mention any implications or applications of the research.

Qualities that Make for a Good Abstract

• Accuracy;
• Non-evaluative style;
• Coherence/ readability (active voice, present tense);
• Conciseness (include only essential info).

The Introduction

• The introduction establishes the research context, including the problem's importance, relating the study to prior research, specifying hypotheses, linking hypotheses to research design, and indicating implications.

Introduction Structure

• The introduction should move from general to specific.
• Introduce the topic generally, contextualize it with research, lay out the specific problem addressed, and state hypotheses.

The Method Section

• The method section outlines the study's details: subjects, materials (including equipment), research design, and methods used.
• Enough detail enables replication of the study. Any prior methodologies can be briefly summaries with references.

The Results Section

• The results section objectively reports findings, presenting summaries and analyses without interpretation or discussion.
• Reference tables and figures, but do not describe their position. Use consistent, professional language.

The Discussion Section

• The discussion section interprets results, drawing conclusions and relating findings to prior research and theory.
• Begin with a restatement of the hypotheses; indicate whether findings support predictions.

Discussion Structure

• Link findings to prior research and theory.
• Explain discrepancies from previous findings.
• Address any methodological problems.
• State implications for future research.

The Reference Section

• The reference section is a bibliography, listing all cited sources.
• Follow the journal's required style for formatting. Use either alphabetical listing or numbering.
• Include all cited articles, books, or other sources.

Using Numbers in the Text

• Spell out numbers that begin sentences, titles, or headings.
• Write out common fractions.
• Utilize numerals for specific numbers, time, dates, ages, sample sizes, scores, money amounts, and most numbers in figures.

Avoiding Biased Language

• Use precise labels and avoid generalizations or biased language when describing ethnic groups.
• Refer to participants respectfully.

Publication and Review Process; Referencing, and Publishing Ethics

Publication Process- General

• Publishing is involved and time-consuming, following scientific and ethical standards.
• Considering journal aims, scope, impact factor, and chances of publication when choosing a journal.
• Writing a manuscript can start at different phases of the data collection and elaboration process.
• Manuscripts should follow the journals formatting style.

Publishing Process- Manuscript Format

• Journals have distinct requirements regarding format (e.g., layout, headings, spacing, word count), referencing style, figures/tables, graphical abstracts, and suggested reviewers).

Publishing Process- Cover Letter Example

• Cover letters are important—explaining the study, presented question, methodology, results, significance of the research, and its relevance are crucial in the manuscript approval process.

Publishing Process- Cover Letters

• Cover letters must be concise, clear, comprehensive, and properly formatted and include a summary of your research, including the study question, approach, results
• The cover letter can influence the editor's decision to accept, potentially rejecting without review to save time if format, content, or scope isn't in line with the stated journal focus.

Publishing Process- Review Process

• The process of review is managed by the editor and the reviewers selected by the editor.
• Reviewers evaluate the paper in terms of the quality, scope, and method to make suggestion to the author.
• The editor(s) will take into account the reviewers feedback to determine whether to accept, reject, or require revisions to the paper.

Publishing Process- Review Decisions

• Editors may accept papers without revisions, only require minor changes, require extensive revisions and further experiments, or to reject.

Publishing Process- Tips for Success

• Have a quality, relevant idea (with timeliness), follow journal guidelines, submit only when suitable for the journal, and store backed-up files.
• Important related tips for writing are to have clear hypotheses and test them, to have good research methods, data, analysis, and statistics, and present curiosity-provoking discussions.

Publishing Process- The Role of the Editor

• Editors guide, shape, and support the overall reputation of the publication by selecting articles of scientific merit for publication in the scope of the publication.

Publishing Process- The Role of the Peer-Reviewer

• Peer reviewers evaluate and validate papers prior to publication, ensuring appropriateness. Confirms validity of study methods, claims made, ensures importance and novelty.
• Reviewers provide advice to authors and improve manuscripts.

Publishing Process- References

• References are crucial to properly credit sources, provide authority and validation, and are a vital part of the scholarly writing and publication process.
• Reference format and style guide to the journal’s style.

Publishing Process- How to Reference

• Follow the journal's reference style guidelines (author-date or numerical).
• Provide enough detail, specificity, and evidence for the referenced work.

Publishing Process- Avoiding Fabrication/Falsification

• Avoid fabrication or falsification of data or figures. Accurate reporting of methodology, data, and analysis is crucial for maintaining ethical standards.

Figure Manipulation

• Figure manipulation, such as brightness, contrast, color balance, and nonlinear adjustments, must be disclosed. These are not considered appropriate to modify results.

Test your knowledge on research methodology topics including sampling techniques, presentation skills, and research paper formatting. This quiz covers essential factors like sample size determination and effective presentation strategies. Perfect for students and professionals looking to enhance their understanding of research methods.