Analysing Data 1 After Mid - PDF

Describing Data  ORGANIZING YOUR DATA  Before you can interpret your data, you must first organize and summarize them.  How you organize your data depends on: 1. your research design (whether you have conducted a survey, observational study, or experiment). 2. how many variables w...

Describing Data  ORGANIZING YOUR DATA  Before you can interpret your data, you must first organize and summarize them.  How you organize your data depends on: 1. your research design (whether you have conducted a survey, observational study, or experiment). 2. how many variables were observed and recorded 3. how observations were grouped or subdivided. data summary sheet  For survey data  The data are organized into a series of columns, one for numbering the respondents, one for each question asked, and one for each demographic item.  Organizing Your Data for Computer Entry  If you are going to submit your data to computer analysis, you should find out how the statistical analysis software that you intend to use expects the data to be organized.  Most software for data analysis looks for a numeric or alphabetic code to determine the levels or values of your independent and dependent variables. You must decide how to code these variables.  Coding independent variables involves assigning values to corresponding levels. For a quantitative independent variable (e.g., number of milligrams of a drug), simply record on your coding sheet the number of milligrams administered to subjects in each treatment group (e.g., 10, 20, or 30).  GRAPHING YOUR DATA  Graphing helps you make sense of your data by representing them visually.  A basic graph represents your data in a two-dimensional space. The two dimensions (horizontal and vertical) are defined by two lines intersecting at right angles, called the axes of the graph.  The horizontal axis is called the x-axis of the graph, and the vertical axis is called the y-axis.  When graphing data from an experiment, you normally represent levels of your independent variable along the x-axis and values of the dependent variable along the y-axis.  Bar Graphs  A bar graph presents your data as bars extending away from the axis representing your independent variable.  The length of each bar reflects the value of the dependent variable.  The bars usually represent estimates of population values based on sample data, such as the sample mean. In such cases the graph may also present an indication of the precision of the estimate in the form of error bars, whiskers that extend from the tops of the bars. The error bars show the variability of scores around the estimate. a multifactor design Line Graphs  A line graph represents data as a series of points connected by a line.  It is most appropriate when your independent variable, represented on the x-axis, is continuous and quantitative (e.g., the number of seconds elapsing between learning and recall).  Line graphs are also appropriate when you want to illustrate functional relationships among variables.  A functional relationship is one in which the value of the dependent variable varies as a function of the value of the independent variable.  Usually, the depicted functional relationship is causal. line graphs  Shapes of Line Graphs negatively accelerated positively accelerated nonmonotonic relationship Scatter Plots In research using a correlational strategy, the data from the two dependent measures are often plotted as a scatter plot. On a scatter plot, each pair of scores is represented as a point on the graph. Scatter plots often include a “best-fitting” straight line to indicate the general trend of the data points shown in the plot. Scatter Plots Pie Graphs  If your data are in the form of proportions or percentages, then you might find a pie graph is a good way to represent the value of each category in the analysis.  The pie graph to the right, called an exploded pie graph, displays the same proportions while emphasizing the proportion of time devoted to grooming. The Importance of Graphing Data 1. Showing Relationships Clearly: Although summarizing data in a table is fine, proper graphing adds a degree of clarity no table can provide. 2. Choosing Appropriate Statistics: graphs allow you to evaluate your data for the application of an appropriate statistic. Before you apply any statistic to your data, graph your sample distributions and examine their shapes. Your choice of statistic will be affected by the manner in which scores are distributed  THE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION  One of the first steps to perform when analyzing your data is to create a frequency distribution for each dependent variable in an experiment or for each variable in a correlational study.  A frequency distribution consists of a set of mutually exclusive categories (classes) into which you sort the actual values observed in your data, together with a count of the number of data values falling into each category (frequencies).  Displaying Distributions 1. The Histogram: resemble bar graphs, with each bar representing a class. Unlike the bars in a bar graph, those in a histogram are drawn touching to indicate that there are no gaps between adjacent classes. Also, on a histogram, the y-axis represents a frequency: a count of the number of observations falling into a given category (e.g., the number of exam scores falling into the categories of A, B, C, D, or F). On a bar graph, the y-axis typically represents a mean score. Examining Your Distribution  When examining a histogram of your data, look for the following important features: 1. locate the center of the distribution (where the scores tended to cluster along the scale of measurement). 2. note the spread of the scores. Do they tend to bunch up around the center or spread far from it? The spread of the scores indicates how variable they are. 3. Third, note the overall shape of the distribution. Is it hill-shaped, with a single peak at the center, or does it have more than one peak? If hill-shaped, is it more or less symmetrical, or is it skewed? 4. look for gaps, or outliers. Outliers are extreme scores that lie far from the others.  skewed distribution  A skewed distribution has a long “tail” trailing off in one direction and a short tail extending in the other. A distribution is positively skewed if the long tail goes off to the right (upscale) or negatively skewed if the long tail goes off to the left( downscale). normal distribution  Many variables tend to produce a distribution that follows more or less a mathematical form known as the normal distribution, which is symmetric and hill-shaped—the well-known bell curve.  DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS: MEASURES OF CENTER AND SPREAD  measure of center: gives you a single score that represents the general magnitude of scores in a distribution. This score characterizes your distribution by indicating a score value that falls at or near the middle of the distribution. The most common measures of center are the mode, the median, and the mean.  The mode is simply the most frequent score in a distribution.  The median is the middle score in a distribution.  The mean (denoted as M) is the most sensitive measure of center because it takes into account all scores in a distribution when it is calculated. It is also the most widely used measure of center.  Choosing a Measure of Center  Which of the three measures of center you choose depends on two factors: the scale of measurement and the shape of the distribution of the scores.  If your scores are normally distributed (or at least nearly normally distributed), then the mean, median, and mode will fall at the same point in the middle of the distribution. use the mean as your measure of center because it is based on the most information.  As your distribution deviates from normality, the mean becomes a less representative measure of center.  Because the median is much less affected by skew, it provides a more representative picture of the distribution’s center than does the mean and should be preferred whenever your distribution is strongly skewed. Choosing a Measure of Center Measures of Spread  When you conduct an experiment, it is extremely unlikely that your subjects will all produce the same score on your dependent measure. A measure of spread provides information that helps you to interpret your data. Two sets of scores may have highly similar means yet very different distributions, as the following example illustrates.  Example: number of goals over 4 years: Player 1: 26, 39, 20, 19 – mean: 26 Player 2: 26, 26, 25, 26 – mean: 25.75  Which of these two players would you prefer to have on your team?  measures of spread 1. The range is the simplest and least informative measure of spread. To calculate the range, you simply subtract the lowest score from the highest score.  Two problems with the range are that it does not take into account the magnitude of the scores between the extremes and that it is very sensitive to outliers in the distribution. 2. The Interquartile Range: To obtain the interquartile range, follow these steps: 1. Order the scores in your distribution. 2. Divide the distribution into four equal parts (quarters). 3. Find the score separating the bottom 25% of the distribution (quartile 1, or Q1) and the score separating the top 25% (Q3) from the rest of the distribution.  The interquartile range is equal to Q3 minus Q1.  The interquartile range is less sensitive than the range to the effects of extreme scores.  measures of spread 3. The variance (s2) is the average squared deviation from the mean.  The defining formula is  where X is each individual score making up the distribution, M is the mean of the distribution, and n is the number of scores.  Although the variance is frequently used as a measure of spread in certain statistical calculations, it does have the disadvantage of being expressed in units different from those of the summarized data.  However, the variance can be easily converted into a measure of spread expressed in the same unit of measurement as the original scores: the standard deviation). To convert from the variance to the standard deviation, simply take the square root of the variance. 4. The standard deviation is the most popular measure of spread  Choosing a Measure of Spread  the range and standard deviation are sensitive to outliers. In cases in which your distribution has one or more outliers, the interquartile range may provide a better measure of spread.  with a skewed distribution, the standard deviation does not provide a representative measure of spread. If your distribution is seriously skewed, use the interquartile range instead. Like the median, the interquartile range is resistant to the effects of skew and outliers. Doing Survey Research  SURVEY RESEARCH  When you conduct survey research, you must ensure that your participants are treated ethically. One major ethical issue concerns whether and how you will maintain the anonymity of your participants and the confidentiality of their responses.  Maintaining anonymity means that you guarantee there will be no way for the participants’ names to be associated with their answers.  Maintaining confidentiality means that you do not disclose any data in individual form, even if you know which participants filled out which questionnaires.  If you promise your participants that their responses will remain confidential, ethical practice dictates that you report only aggregate results. DESIGNING YOUR QUESTIONNAIRE  The first step in designing a questionnaire is to clearly define the topic of your study.  Your questionnaire should include a broad enough range of questions so that you can thoroughly assess the problem but not so broad as to lose focus and become confusing.  Your questionnaire should elicit the responses you are most interested in without much extraneous information.  The type of information gathered on a questionnaire depends on its purpose. However, most questionnaires include items designed to assess the characteristics of the participants, such as age, sex, marital status, occupation, income, and education.  Such characteristics are called demographics  DESIGNING YOUR QUESTIONNAIRE  In addition to demographics, you will have items designed to assess the variable of interest.  The questions to which your participants will respond are the heart of your questionnaire. Take great care to develop questions that are clear, to the point, and relevant to the aims of your research.  Well-constructed items are easier to summarize, analyze, and interpret than poorly constructed ones.  Before designing your questionnaire or writing questions, you should put yourself in a respondent’s state of mind  Writing Questionnaire Items  When writing questionnaire items, you may choose among several popular types. 1. Open-Ended Items allow the participant to respond in his or her own words. Example: How often did you use your cell phone to get information about new drugs? 2. Restricted Items (also called closed-ended items) provide a limited number of specific response alternatives. How often did you use your cell phone to get about new drugs? Very often, Sometimes, Not too often, Never 3. Partially Open-Ended Items resemble restricted items but provide an additional, “other” category and an opportunity to give an answer not listed among the specific alternatives  Writing Questionnaire Items  Example: How did you most use your cell phone during the 2016 presidential election campaign?  ____Send a political text, ____Receive a political text, ____Read another person’s political views on social media, ____Post my political views on social media, ____Fact-check information I encountered,____Other (Specify)______________ 4. Rating Scales: A variation on the restricted item uses a rating scale rather than response alternatives. A rating scale provides a graded response to a question:  How much confidence do you have that the political information you obtained using your cell phone during the 2016 presidential campaign was accurate?  No confidence 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 A lot of confidence  Assembling Your Questionnaire  A good first question should be interesting and engaging so that the respondent will be motivated to continue.  Your questionnaire should have continuity; that is, related items should be presented together.  The order in which questions are included on a questionnaire has been shown to affect the responses of participants.  The placement of items asking for sensitive information (such as sexual preferences or illegal behavior) is an important factor.  use appropriate graphics (e.g., arrows and other symbols) to guide respondents through the questionnaire. ADMINISTERING YOUR QUESTIONNAIRE 1. Mail Surveys 2. Internet Surveys 3. Telephone Surveys 4. Group-Administered Surveys 5. Face-to-Face Interviews 6. Mixed-Mode Surveys  ASSESSING THE RELIABILITY OF YOUR QUESTIONNAIRE 1. Assessing Reliability by Repeated Administration: You simply administer your questionnaire, allow some time to elapse, and then administer the questionnaire (or a parallel form of it) again to the same group of participants. If, on testing and retesting, your questionnaire produces highly similar results, you have a reliable instrument. 2. Assessing Reliability with a Single Administration: this approach involves splitting the questionnaire into equivalent halves and deriving a score for each half; the correlation between scores from the two halves is known as split-half reliability Increasing Reliability 1. Increase the number of items on your questionnaire. 2. Standardize administration procedures. Reliability will be enhanced if you treat all participants alike when administering your questionnaire. 3. Score your questionnaire carefully. Scoring errors can reduce reliability. 4. Make sure that the items on your questionnaire are clear, well written, and appropriate for your sample ASSESSING THE VALIDITY OF YOUR QUESTIONNAIRE 1. content validity assesses whether the questions cover the range of variables normally considered to be part of the dimension that you are assessing. 2. The construct validity of a questionnaire can be established by showing that the questionnaire’s results agree with predictions based on theory. 3. the criterion-related validity of a questionnaire involves correlating the questionnaire’s results with those from another, established measure ACQUIRING A SAMPLE FOR YOUR SURVEY  Representativeness: A representative sample closely matches the characteristics of the population. 1. Randomly selecting a certain number of individuals from the population is a technique called simple random sampling. 2. Stratified sampling provides one way to obtain a representative sample. You begin by dividing the population into segments. Next, you select a separate random sample of equal size from each stratum. 3. Proportionate Sampling: Simple stratified sampling ensures a degree of representativeness, but it may lead to a segment of the population being over represented in your sample. 4. Cluster Sampling: you could identify naturally occurring groups of participants (clusters) and randomly select certain clusters. 5. Systematic Sampling: This technique involves sampling every kth element after a random start. Sample Size  a large sample is necessary if you anticipate a large number of uncontrolled variables or if your sample is to be subdivided.  A small sample is acceptable in exploratory studies or when you have tight control over variables.  The best advice concerning sample size is to select an economic sample—one that includes enough participants to ensure a valid survey and no more.  You must take into account two factors when considering the size of the sample needed to ensure a valid survey: the amount of acceptable error and the expected magnitude of the population proportions. Presentation Skills Steps in Giving Presentation 1. Plan 2. Prepare 3. Practice 4. Present 1. Planning Planning Who is your audience? Why are they there? What is your goal? How long will it be? Where will it take place? Create interest “We need to open gaps before we close them. Our tendency is to tell people the facts. First, though, they must realize that they need these facts.” Structure 2. Preparation  Some things to avoid………  The evils of Powerpoint are familiar to everyone, they include:  Too much text  Too small to read  Clip Art and Slide templates that have been seen a million times Part of the problem with having so much text onscreen is that it puts of people. If the idea of your presentation is to read from the slides then why are you there? Besides people can read quicker than you can talk so they’ll have finished reading your slide and be waiting for the next one, or even worse working on a masterpience doodle. Your presentation, Powerpoint or otherwise, should be a supporting aid – you want main the focus on you not your presentation. Ideally, you should be able to deliver an equally interesting presentation using the projector/computer/room/audience break. Avoid too many bullets as well – it makes the information dull for the audience. 10/ 20/ 30 rule “should have ten slides, last no more than twenty minutes, and contain no font smaller than thirty points.” Guy Kawaski A few guidelines Use images to support your point Use a consistent theme Power Point Critique 3. Practice Fitness  Slow to develop  Quick to disappear The more you practice:  better you feel  more you want to do Feeling Nervous? Lack of experience Lack of preparation Lack of enthusiasm Negative self-talk  Presenting Fitness Room Practice Everything Technology It’s not about you Becoming Confident 4. Presenting The most powerful visual aid words voice body language Turn yourself on ask questions more extroverted talk beforehand Make a strong start Audience attention Smile Dealing with Questions TRACT technique 1. Thank the questioner 2. Repeat the question 3. Answer the question 4. Check with the questioner if they are satisfied 5. Thank them again Giving Criticism Step 1: Listen to Criticism Step 2: Decide on Truth Step 3: Respond Assertively Passive Response Directly Aggressive Response Indirectly Aggressive Response Reporting Your Research Results  Introduction  Your journey through the world of research has taken you through the steps involved in choosing a research question, developing hypotheses, choosing a general strategy and specific design to test your hypotheses, and describing and analyzing your data. The final step in this process is to tell the world what you did and what you found.  Reporting your research results is perhaps the most important step because it is only by this reporting that science progresses.  This step is not only essential for progress but also required to assess the reliability of your findings and the soundness of your conclusions.  Only when your research has been reported can others attempt to replicate and extend your findings. Article parts  There are seven main sections in aresearch report manuscript: 1. the title page 2. abstract 3. introduction 4. method 5. results 6. discussion 7. references.  The Title Page  The title page includes (in order) your running head and page number, the title of your paper, author name, the author’s institutional affiliation, and any author notes.  Place the title, author, and institutional affiliation information on the top half of the title page centered between the left and right margins.  Title  If the title fails to communicate clearly what the paper is about, readers may skip the paper.  To avoid this fate for your paper, make your title concise yet informative.  Avoid using words that add little to the meaningfulness of your title (e.g., “An Experimental Investigation of...” and “A Correlational Field Study of...”).  Keep your title short enough to avoid confusion about your research, but not so short that it fails to convey the topic of your paper.  The recommended length for a title is no more than 12 words. Title- examples  Too long: An Experimental Study of the Effect of Delay of Reinforcement on Discrimination Learning in White Rats  Too short: The Effect of Reinforcement on Learning  Just right: Effect of Delay of Reinforcement on Discrimination Learning in Rats  In the first example, the words “An Experimental Study of ” and “White” add extraneous words to your title. The second title is too general.  Capitalize the first letter of the first word and of all subsequent words  Author Name(s) and Affiliation(s)  If you are the sole author of the paper, your name goes one double- spaced line beneath the title.  Include your given name, middle initial(s), and last name (in that order), centered between the margins.  To avoid confusion you should use the same format for your name for all papers you prepare.  Do not include any titles (such as Mr., Ms., Dr.) or degrees (B.A., M.A., Ph.D., M.D., etc.).  Your affiliation identifies where you were when you conducted your research. This is usually the organization that provided the local facilities and/or support for your research (usually a university or college).  Its name appears one double-spaced line below yours on the title page, centered between the margins.  The Abstract  The abstract is a concise summary of your paper. Each journal has its own requirements concerning the length of your abstract.  In most cases, the length of your abstract will be between 150 and 250 words.  Although short, the abstract is important. Abstracts of papers appear at the beginning of the journal article and in databases.  A potential reader will use your abstract to decide whether to read your paper as part of a literature search.  If your abstract is poorly written, readers may fail to understand the significance of your work and may pass it by.  Thus, you should put effort into writing a clear, concise abstract.  Abstract composition  1. Information on the problem under study (preferably in one sentence).  2. Objective  3. The nature of the subject sample (e.g., age and sex).  4. A description of the methods used, including equipment, procedures for gathering data, names of tests, and so on.  5. A statement of the findings, including information on levels of statistical significance, effect sizes, and confidence intervals.  6. A statement of the conclusions drawn and any implications or applications of your results. Qualities that make for a good abstract 1. Your abstract must be accurate. This means that the information in your abstract reflects what is in the body of your paper. 2. your abstract should be nonevaluative. You should report on your study and avoid adding any comments on what is in your paper. 3. your abstract should be coherent and readable. Write your abstract using clear and concise language. Generally, write in the active rather than passive voice and write in the present tense (except when describing specific manipulations or results). 4. make your abstract as concise as possible. Include only the most important information and write in concise sentences. The Introduction . The primary function of the introduction is to describe the problem studied and your basic research strategy.  Before writing your introduction, ask yourself the following questions:  1. Why is the issue studied important?  2. How does your study relate to previous research in the area and how does it differ from other studies on the same issue?  3. What are the hypotheses and objectives of your study and how do they relate to relevant theory (if they do)?  4. How do your hypotheses relate to your research design?  5. What are the theoretical and practical implications of your study?  Introduction  To help the reader understand why you conducted your study, your introduction should include the following information:  1. An introduction to the topic under study.  2. A brief review of the research findings and theories related to the topic.  3. A statement of the problem to be addressed by the research.  4. A statement of the purpose of the research (always to solve the problem identified but perhaps only a specific aspect of it).  5. A brief description of the research strategy, intended to establish the relationship between the question being addressed and the method used to address it.  Introduction structure  you should structure your introduction to move from a general to a specific level.  In the opening paragraph of your introduction, present a general discussion of the issue you chose to study.  Next, present a review of research relating directly to your study. This will help you develop the underlying logic and rationale for your study in more specific terms.  Next, identify the specific problem addressed by your research and state the purpose of your study.  Finally, show how your study addresses the question, and state your specific hypotheses.  The Method Section  This section describes in detail the characteristics of your subjects, materials, and apparatus used, research design, and procedures followed.  The level of detail should be sufficient to allow another researcher to replicate your study.  If your paper uses a methodology described before, you may give a brief summary of the methods used and refer the reader to the previously published account.  The method section is divided into subsections to improve organization and readability.  The Results Section  The purpose of your results section is to report your findings. You should present all relevant data summaries and analyses.  do not present raw (unanalyzed) or individual data.  Do not interpret or discuss your findings in the results section.  The results section is where you discuss any tables or figures that present data from your study.  when referring to a figure or table, do not refer to its position. For example, do not say, “Figure 1, shown above, illustrates...” because the figure may not appear where you expected it to be placed in the published article. The Discussion Section  In the discussion section, you interpret your results, draw conclusions, and relate your findings to previous research or theory.  The structure of your discussion section reverses that of the introduction; rather than moving from general to specific, it moves from specific research findings to general implications.  Discussion structure  Begin your discussion section with a brief restatement of your hypotheses. Next, briefly indicate whether your data were consistent with your pre-experimental hypotheses.  Use the remainder of the discussion section to integrate your findings with previous research and theory. Discuss how consistent your findings are with previous work in the area.  If your study yielded results that are discrepant from previous work, you should speculate on why the discrepancies emerged.  point out any problems encountered during the course of your research that might temper any conclusions drawn from your study.  Discussion structure  You should report on any methodological problems that became evident when you actually ran your study.  indicate what implications your findings have for future research in the area.  Point out any specific areas that need to be investigated further.  You must base your interpretations on your data, data from previous research, and/or established theory.  Avoid the temptation to make unsubstantiated interpretations even if they make sense to you.  The Reference Section  The reference section provides a bibliographical list of the references cited in the report.  You must list in the reference section all articles, books, or other sources (e.g., conference presentations) you cited in the body of your paper.  Start your reference section on a new page.  References are listed either alphabetically or using numbers depending on the journal style. Using Numbers in the Text  Any number that begins a sentence, title, or heading is written out (e.g., Twenty subjects were assigned).  Write out numbers representing common fractions (e.g., two- thirds of the class).  Use numerals when representing time, dates, ages, sample or population sizes, specific numbers of subjects in an experiment, scores and points on a scale, sums of money, and numerals as numerals(e.g., the longitudinal study took 4 years; numbers on the scale ranged from 0 to 10).  Use numerals for all numbers that appear in the abstract of a paper or in graphical displays.  Avoiding Biased Language  guidelines to follow to avoid biased language: 1. when you describe ethnic groups, avoid using general terms such as Asian or Hispanic. Instead, be specific. If your participants were Chinese or Puerto Rican, use those more specific terms. 2. You should be sensitive to the labels you attach to people. Avoid labeling groups of people. For example, the label “the elderly” categorizes people as if they were objects. The term “elderly people” is preferred. Always mentioning White participants before Black participants may imply a superiority of Whites over Blacks. 3. Refer to individuals who participate in your research in a way that acknowledges their participation. For example, rather than saying, “Participants were run in groups of four,” say, “Participants completed the experiment in groups of four.” Publication and review process; referencing and publishing ethics 91  92 Publication process If you are going to become involved in publishing in the international literature, there are few questions to keep in mind: Why publish? – Why it is difficult to publish? Before the publication, what do I need to keep in mind when I am performing the research? How do I choose a journal? How do I write the article? How do I submit the article? How is the article reviewed?  93 Publication process 1. Why is it difficult to publish? Not all research is new or of sufficient interest. Experiments do not always work. Even if the experiments work you may get negative results: positive results are easier to publish. Scientific journals have some requirements that might be difficult to meet: This is because the demand to publish (from scientists) exceed the capability of the number of journals. Thus journals “owners” have an advantage over scientists and therefore they use very tight filters of selection. Certain journals have acceptance rate of less than 10%.  94 Publication process 2. Thinking ahead during research Questions to keep in mind when performing the experimental part and before writing the article I. Where (to which journal) will I publish these results? Accordingly, you can use certain methods or others – also you can skip certain experiments and focus on others. II. How many papers will I publish with these data? Better to know this in advance, rather than writing an article and then realize it should be split into two articles. III. Who will be my co-authors? Working in lab groups or in teams across disciplines and institutions distributes this workload efficiently. Morocco_VSL_Publication_Workshop_Mars2012  95 Publication process 2. Thinking ahead during research IV. What information will I need to record during research in order to produce a publication? Methods Always write ALL details of the methods you are using – too many details is better than not enough Materials Always record the manufacturers name and country; when necessary record batch numbers Morocco_VSL_Publication_Workshop_Mars2012  96 Publication process 3. Choosing a journal The journal for publication is generally chosen according to: I. Aims and scopes of the journal It is essential to read the aims of scopes of a journal to make sure that your research is within the scopes of that journal. II. Impact factor (IF) It is probably the most important factor in determining the importance of a journal (compared to others in the same fields) –the higher the IF the better the quality of a journal. III. Chances of publication It is important to be objective, so to select a journal where the research has good (or at least some) chance of publications.  97 Publication process 3. Choosing a journal Woolley K L , Barron J P Chest 2009;135:573-577  98 http://slideplayer.com/slide/4864285/  99 Publication process 3. Choosing a journal The journal for publication is generally chosen according to: IV. Time of publication Speed of publications can be another important parameter in the choice, but should not be the most important one. V. Open access vs Subscription journals Traditionally (i.e. subscription journals): authors do not pay for their articles to be published. After publication anyone that wants to read the full-text article will pay for it. Open access journals offer a new option: authors pay to publish their articles. Yet, after publication the full-text article is free for anyone.* *advantage: more visibility, more chances of being cited by others  10 0 Publication process E.g. IF of Nature in 2014:  10 1 Impact Number of Ranking (Top % of Factor Journals Journals) 10+ 213 1.7% 9+ 257 2.1% 8+ 317 2.6% 7+ 400 3.3% 6+ 553 4.6% 5+ 778 6.5% 4+ 1251 10.4% 3+ 2303 19.1% 2+ 4388 36.4% 1+ 8074 67.0% 0+ 12061 100% The Journal Citation Reports (JCR) database tracks all impact factors. Only about one-thirds of the journals tracked by JCR have a 2016 impact factor equal to or greater than 2. Not all journals are tracked in the JCR database and, as a result, do not have impact factors.  10 2 Scopus: Citescore  10 3 Publication process 3. Choosing a journal Publishing in lower IF journals does not mean that your research will not have enough exposure. All journals that have IF are internationally recognised and most of them are good quality journals. You can often find an articles published in low IF journal having higher number of citations of an article in a high IF journal. The scientific worth of an individual article has nothing to do with the impact factor of a journal.  10 4 Publication process 4. Writing a manuscript Writing a manuscript generally starts when all data have been collected and elaborated. However it can start before data have been interpreted or sometimes even during and before data collection has started.  10 5 Publication process 5. Submitting a manuscript Read the journal guideline carefully. Some important factors to consider: Manuscript format (e.g. rules regarding layout and headings; spacing; number of words…..) Referencing style Figures (format accepted and sizes) Graphical abstracts?? Suggested reviewers  10 6 Publication process 5. Submitting a manuscript Submitted manuscript format Published journal format* Morocco_VSL_Publication_Workshop_Mars2012 *Copy-editing is done by publishers  10 7 Publication process 5. Submitting a manuscript Cover letter It is of crucial importance as much as the manuscript. The decision to whether the Journal editor will decide if your article is worth being reviewed depends on the cover letter. It is a short letter (1 page usually), where the main author presents the research to the editor, explaining what question the article should answer, how you have addressed the question, the results and their significance and why the research can be an important contribution to their Journal. Morocco_VSL_Publication_Workshop_Mars2012  10 8 Publication process 5. Submitting a manuscript Cover letter- example Dear Professors……….., Enclosed is the manuscript entitled ‘……….(title of article)’ for consideration for publication in.......... (title of journal) The manuscript presents novel results regarding………………………………………….. (summary of what you discovered and how) Considering that……………………. (explain why your study is a valuable addition to the field) There are no financial or other relationships that could lead to a conflict of interest relating to this manuscript. We confirm that this manuscript has not been published elsewhere and is not under consideration by another journal. The manuscript has been read and approved by all the authors. I look forward to your decision about this manuscript. Yours Sincerely,  10 9 Publication process 6. The review process a. After the article is submitted, if the editor considers the article worth to be reviewed, he will assign the article to reviewers (2,3 or more). b. Reviewers (referees) should be scientists with experience in the same field. For this reason the process is called peer-review. c. Reviewers revise (and propose a decision to the editor). d. Editors decide if the article is to be accepted by the journal.  11 0 Publication process 6. The review process Four are the common decisions from editors: I. Accepted without any correction (rare) II. Minor corrections (modifying numbering of paragraphs, re- writing unclear sentences, adding certain references, modifying figures or tables, change some interpretation of data…) III. Major corrections (Major part of the article needs re-writing or further experiments are needed) IV. Rejected Morocco_VSL_Publication_Workshop_Mars2012  11 1 Publication process Submission of manuscript Review Decision Rejection Revision (min/major) Acceptance Resubmission Publication Re-review Acceptance Rejection Publication Source: dor.umc.edu/.../WritingandpublishingaresearcharticleAdair.ppt 11 2  11 3 Publication process 6. The review process Main reasons for rejection and what to do after rejection: Methods or data acquisition are not of the highest scientific standards (methods are not scientifically validated;not enough replicates; not enough data to justify conclusions) Inappropriate for the journal ! Submit to a more appropriate Journal (different scope)* Not enough innovative ! Rewrite objectives/discussion/conclusions or add experiments and submit to Journal with lower IF* Poorly written: ! Rewrite it and send it to another journal* *the same research cannot be resubmitted to the same journal after rejection  11 4 Publication process 6. The review process In case of revision, how to respond to reviewers comments? Respond thoroughly to each comment Be respectful even if you totally disagree with certain comments. Explain in detail If you want to follow the suggestions of the reviewer show how and where you have made the changes. If you do not want to follow certain suggestions explain well your reasons, being convincing, but respectful. Remember: if they want they can still reject your article! Thank the reviewers they often work for free, offering an essential service to you. Morocco_VSL_Publication_Workshop_Mars2012  11 5 Publication process Tips for a successful publication Have a good idea and have it in the right time (hot topics). Read and follow all formatting guidelines. Be sure that the journal is suitable for the research. Store appropriately back-ups of all files relative to the article (crucial when you will have to revise the article). Writing related tips:  Have a hypothesis and test it.  Strong method; strong data; strong analysis/stats.  Your discussion should provoke curiosity.  Do not be lengthy.  11 6 The role of the editor The editor is responsible for maintaining the reputation of the journal by publishing papers of scientific merit and within the scope of the journal. Editors (or editorial team) receive from few hundreds to several thousands articles per year (besides is normal job), so they cannot check full-text article one by one (and often do not have the expertise about all topics covered by the journals) → therefore they need reviewers. They generally select them based on their information of experts in a specific field and they also follow authors’ suggestions. Editors collect reviewers opinions and are the ones making final decisions on acceptance or rejection of articles.  11 7 The role of the editor Editors might NOT send the article for review and might reject directly the article, only if: The topic does not fit within the scope of the journal The all question is within the scope but it is not of high relevance or it is not too clear. The writing style is not up to level of international journals If there are obvious flaws in the science However, some editors might received >10000 articles per year in their journal and cannot send all of them for peer-review, therefore they might apply high standards and directly reject many article without peer review.  11 8 The role of the peer-reviewer Peer review: Confirms that the hypotheses have been tested appropriately (correct methods). Confirms that the strength of claims about the results and implications are appropriate. Assist editor to decide whether the focus, novelty and importance of the research are appropriate for the standards of the journal. Advice the authors and the editor about how the manuscript could be improved. Reviewers are important to editor because they can determine the quality of a manuscript, generally for free. Reviewers are important to authors because they bring a critical eye, a professional feedback and helpful suggestions on how to improve the article. Reviewers know who are the authors; authors do not know who reviewers are (generally).  11 9 References Reference citations must be included in your article to give credit to another person who have published or presented the idea. What is the purpose of references? - Provides the reader with the original sources of information that you are using. - Provides ‘authority’ in your writing – that you aren’t ‘making things up’ but that you have researched the topic area, you know what the arguments are in your area and you have a good understanding of these arguments. Avoid reporting exact words and in case you must do it use “quotations”.  12 0 References How do you decide whether or not you need to reference something? General rule is that if it’s a commonly accepted fact then you don’t need to reference it. You need to have more references in the specific key points of your work than in parts that are not the central point of your argument. Examples: We are working on adding certain excipients to ethyl cellulose coatings to modulate drug release kinetics. When we write: “Coating of solid dosage form can be used to provide modified drug release” It is generally known, no need for a citation. “Ethyl cellulose can be used as a polymer for coatings that provide sustained drug release” Here we need a reference. “Ethyl cellulose coating can only provide a declining-type of release. Therefore, additional excipients must be added to coating, if other kinetics of release are necessary to achieve specific therapeutics goals.” This is a key point for the all study, this sentence require references and probably more than just one reference.  12 1 References 1. Harvard system where you use author and date. 2. An alternative system is the numbering system. Check what the journal requires and the exact format. If you use a bibliographic data manager such as Endnote, Refworks or Mendeley you should be able to select the required journal format and all your references should be converted to the right format.  12 2 References There is good evidence that global temperature has increased over the past two decades (Huang et al. 2000). An increase in spring temperatures has led to advancing tree phenology and subsequently to earlier peaks in insect abundance (Visser et al. 1998, Harrington et al. 1999). In the last decade, evidence for ecological effects of climate change in bird populations has been increasing (Jrvinen 1994, Winkel and Hudde 1997, Crick et al. 1997, McCleery and Perrins 1998, Forchhammer et al. 1998, Visser et al. 1998, Slater 1999, Crick and Sparks 1999, Dunn and Winkler 1999, Brown et al. 1999, Przybylo et al. 2000, Sæther et al. 2000, Sillet et al. 2000, Both and Visser 2001, Moss et al. 2001). Most, but not all, temperate bird species have responded to the general increase in spring temperature by advancing the onset of breeding (Crick et al. 1997, Crick and Sparks 1999)…………………………………. This continental scale effect of climate change has been only studied in the tree swallow Tachycineta bicolor breeding in North America (Dunn and Winkler 1999), and in the great tit Parus major and blue tit Parus caeruleus breeding in Europe (Sanz 2002). in this example the references usually happen to occur at the end of a sentence but this won’t always be applicable, particularly where you may have several aspects being mentioned in one sentence, as seen in the last sentence in this text.  12 3 Authorship  12 4 Authorship To obtain authorship credit, a person must partake in ALL of the following phases of research publication: substantial contribution to research design, data collection and analysis; drafting or revising any important intellectual content;  12 5 Authorship General principles 1st Author: conduct and/or supervises the data generation and analysis and the proper presentation and interpretation of the results Corresponding author: the one that is in contact with the editor and that will be contacted in case of any question regarding the article. He/she is well aware of all aspects of the article. Senior author from institution; can be also first author. Generally authorships contribution is ranked in the following order: 1st, last (especially if corresponding), 2nd, 3rd …….. Abuses Ghost authors: leaving out authors who should be included. Gift authors: include authors who did not contribute, significantly.  12 6 Authorship  12 7 Publishing ethics Examples of abuse of publishing ethics: Plagiarism Figures manipulation Data fabrication and falsification  12 8 Publishing ethics Plagiarism is the "wrongful appropriation" and "stealing and publication" of another author's "language, thoughts, words, ideas, or expressions“. Plagiarism can consist in not citing an idea that does not belong to you OR it can consist in reproducing word for word someone ideas without both “quotations” and citation. It is a short-cut with long term consequences: plagiarism is considered a serious offence to your institution, to the journal editor and to the scientific community. Plagiarism might result in academic charges and surely ruins one scientific reputation. Any article retracted due to plagiarism will not be removed from databases, it will available and downloadable, but as a retracted article, in which all can read the reasons for the retraction.  12 9 http://slideplayer.com/slide/4864285/  13 0 http://slideplayer.com/slide/4864285/  13 1 http://slideplayer.com/slide/4864285/  13 2 Publishing ethics Fabrication of data: making up data and reporting them Falsification of data: changing data and reporting them “… the fabrication of research data … hits at the heart of our responsibility to society, the reputation of our institution, the trust between the public and the biomedical research community, and our personal credibility and that of our mentors, colleagues…” “It can waste the time of others, trying to replicate false data or designing experiments based on false premises, and can lead to therapeutic errors. It can never be tolerated.” Professor Richard Hawkes, Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy University of Calgary