Research Methodology and Philosophy
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Questions and Answers

What is the main purpose of content analysis in qualitative research?

  • To describe and categorize common themes in qualitative data (correct)
  • To generate new theories based on diverse data
  • To quantitatively measure relationships between variables
  • To statistically analyze numerical data for generalizations

Which qualitative research design is characterized by immersion in a culture to understand its dynamics?

  • Ethnography (correct)
  • Grounded theory
  • Phenomenology
  • Narrative analysis

In which qualitative research design would a researcher focus on interpreting lived experiences of participants?

  • Grounded theory
  • Snowball sampling
  • Action research
  • Phenomenology (correct)

What sampling method involves selecting participants based on their availability?

<p>Convenience sampling (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How would you best describe the action research design?

<p>Links theory to practice in a collaborative manner (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a common type of qualitative data analysis?

<p>Regression analysis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of purposive sampling in qualitative research?

<p>Participants are chosen based on their ability to provide informative data (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does thematic analysis focus on in qualitative research?

<p>Identifying and analyzing patterns and themes within data (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary goal of thematic analysis in qualitative research?

<p>To identify and interpret patterns and themes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect is crucial for ensuring credibility in qualitative research?

<p>Ensuring the accuracy and truth of findings. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does discourse analysis primarily differ from textual analysis?

<p>Discourse analysis focuses on the study of communication and language use. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the concept of triangulation in research?

<p>Employing multiple data collection methods for accuracy. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does transferability refer to in qualitative research?

<p>The ability to apply findings to different contexts. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main focus of textual analysis in research?

<p>To study how content is structured and designed. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an indicator of dependability in qualitative research?

<p>Consistent and reproducible research procedures. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential application of discourse analysis for a political scientist?

<p>Studying how politicians use language to generate trust. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of primary data collection methods?

<p>They focus on sampling from a population or sampling frame. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT an advantage of probability sampling?

<p>Superficial data (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following methods is a type of multimethod data collection approach?

<p>Combining a questionnaire with official statistics. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of data do official statistics provide?

<p>Both qualitative and quantitative data across various social indicators. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the primary roles of statistics in quantitative research?

<p>To identify trends and inform policy and practice. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What limitation is associated with biased samples in research?

<p>They may skew the representativeness of the findings. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which approach focuses on examining text and its function in creating meaning?

<p>Content Analysis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do official statistics enhance sociological research?

<p>They offer large-scale data that researchers may not be able to collect independently. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What determines social status in a closed system of stratification?

<p>Inheritance and social class at birth (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key feature of an open system of stratification?

<p>Status determined by individual efforts (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Giddens, what is the overall impact of social categories on an individual's life experiences?

<p>They are the primary determinants of experiences and opportunities (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept relates to slow changes in social ranks over time?

<p>Legitimation of inequality (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of ascriptive status in a closed system of stratification?

<p>Inheriting a title from family (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does power play in social structure according to Giddens?

<p>It sustains the stability of social stratification (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does symbolic interactionism explain social identity within a stratified society?

<p>They are shaped by individual interactions and perceptions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes ascribed status from achieved status in social stratification?

<p>Ascribed status cannot be changed, while achieved status depends on personal effort. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary basis of social class distinctions in a class system?

<p>Accumulated wealth and income (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT one of the three components of Weber's theory of social stratification?

<p>Influence (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Weber's theory, how can economic class influence social mobility?

<p>Economic class can provide access to educational and professional opportunities. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Symbolic Interactionism contribute to the understanding of social identity?

<p>It focuses on the active interpretation and meaning-making through social interactions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of power in Weber's social stratification theory?

<p>Power shapes an individual's ability to achieve goals despite social resistance. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which best describes the relationship between class, status, and power in Weber’s theory?

<p>These three factors are interrelated and influence each other in a social context. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key concept in Symbolic Interactionism relating to social interactions?

<p>Individuals actively create meaning through interactions using symbols. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best reflects the view of social mobility in terms of class membership according to the content?

<p>Educational and income factors can enhance an individual's social mobility. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept differentiates ascriptive status from achievement-based status?

<p>Status inherited and often unchangeable (B), Status acquired through personal effort and accomplishments (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the components of Weber's three-component theory of stratification?

<p>Economic status, political power, social prestige (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does economic class primarily impact social mobility?

<p>It affects access to quality education and job opportunities (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In symbolic interactionism, how is social identity primarily constructed?

<p>Through interpretations of social symbols and interactions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does power play in the structure of society according to conflict theory?

<p>Power manifests as competition for resources and social control (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the Labour Theory of Value (LTV)?

<p>Value reflects the labor time required for production (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary critique of the Labour Theory of Value that led to the emergence of Subjective Theory of Value (SVT)?

<p>It does not account for consumer perception of value (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In historical materialism, what drives the evolution of societal structures according to Marx and Engels?

<p>The ongoing struggle between different classes over resources (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Charles Horton Cooley's theory, the 'Looking Glass Self', describe?

<p>How individuals perceive themselves based on their interpretation of others' perceptions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept refers to the ongoing process individuals engage in to create meanings through their interactions?

<p>Social interaction (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the principles of symbolism in social behavior, what explains why individuals assign different meanings to the same symbol?

<p>Individual subjective beliefs and experiences. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do language and symbols play in shaping social reality according to symbolic interactionism?

<p>They help individuals communicate and negotiate meanings in social contexts. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of symbolic interactionism in understanding human behavior?

<p>It studies the meanings individuals assign to objects and behaviors through social interaction. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily determines an individual's social status in a closed system of stratification?

<p>Social class a person is born into (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes social mobility in an open system of stratification?

<p>Social position determined by individual efforts (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic of social categories is emphasized in socially stratified societies?

<p>Categories share common, socially significant characteristics (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of social stratification, how does the term 'status' specifically relate to individuals?

<p>It reflects the honor and prestige associated with a role (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key feature of the class system in socially stratified societies?

<p>It reinforces distinctions between social classes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect best describes the process by which social ranks change over time?

<p>Gradual changes occurring over extended periods (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is primarily responsible for the legitimation of social stratification systems?

<p>Belief systems justifying inequality and rankings (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately reflects the nature of social structure in stratified societies?

<p>Social structure is shaped by values that define social groups (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do the three components of Weber's theory of social stratification include?

<p>Class, Status, Power (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the concept of status in relation to class?

<p>Status reflects social prestige or honor independent of class. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does power influence social interactions according to Weber's theory?

<p>Power refers to the ability to influence others despite resistance. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of social behavior does Symbolic Interactionism emphasize?

<p>Active interpretation and meaning-making through symbols (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to George Herbert Mead, how do individuals develop their sense of self?

<p>Through interactions with others and society (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of Karl Marx's Labour Theory of Value (LTV)?

<p>The relationship between production time and market price (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the concept of historical materialism?

<p>The idea that societal changes are driven by labor and production methods (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best summarizes Weber's critique of Marx's view on social stratification?

<p>Weber emphasized that social stratification involves multiple interrelated components. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential limitation of relying solely on class in understanding social mobility?

<p>Class does not include cultural aspects. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Marxism, what does the term 'class struggle' refer to?

<p>The tension arising from societal structures and roles (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of Weber's theory, what factors can contribute to a person's class?

<p>Individual achievements and inherited wealth (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What revolutionary change did Marx and Engels propose as a solution to the issues of capitalism?

<p>The establishment of a communist society (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept directly contradicts the Labour Theory of Value, leading to the emergence of Subjective Theory of Value?

<p>Market price determined by consumer perception (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Marx's dialectical method, what is meant by 'synthesis'?

<p>The resolution between different societal contradictions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is social stratification defined according to Harold Kerbo?

<p>A predictable system where individuals and groups are ranked (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a critique of capitalism as noted by Karl Marx?

<p>It results in the exploitation of the working class (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Thematic Analysis

A method to identify and interpret patterns and themes in qualitative data.

Textual Analysis

Examining the content, structure, and design of texts.

Discourse Analysis

A method to study communication and how language is used to achieve effects.

Internal Validity

In quantitative research, how confidently we can say one thing caused another.

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Credibility

In qualitative research, how accurate and believable the findings are.

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Triangulation

Using multiple data collection methods to boost accuracy in research.

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Peer Examination

Having another researcher review the work to ensure accuracy.

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Reliability (Quantitative)

Consistency and repeatability of a measurement instrument in quantitative research

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Qualitative Research Design

The plan for a study that helps researchers decide who to study, what to observe, when to observe, and how to collect data.

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Grounded Theory

A qualitative research method that collects detailed data and uses it to create theories inductively.

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Ethnography

Researchers immerse themselves in groups or organizations to understand their culture.

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Action Research

Researchers and participants work together to apply theory to real-world situations and create social change.

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Phenomenology

Describes and interprets the lived experiences of participants related to a certain phenomenon or event.

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Purposive Sampling

Selection of participants based on the researcher's judgment and rationale that they are the most insightful.

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Content Analysis

A method to categorize and describe common words, phrases, and thoughts in qualitative data.

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Non-Probability Sampling

Sampling methods that don't use random selection, including purposive, criterion, convenience, snowball, extreme case, and typical case sampling.

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Primary Methods (research)

Research methods used to collect original data, often quantitative, involving sampling.

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Probability Sampling

Sampling techniques (e.g., simple random, stratified) that give each member of a population an equal chance of being selected.

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Official Statistics

Data collected by government bodies on various social phenomena (e.g., births, crime, unemployment).

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Quantitative Research

A research approach that primarily uses numerical data to investigate phenomena and relationships.

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Descriptive Statistics

Methods used to summarize and describe characteristics of a dataset.

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Data Analysis

The process of interpreting and drawing meaningful conclusions from data.

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Monomethod

Research design that utilizes only one type of method for data collection.

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Multimethod

Research design that uses two or more different kinds of methods for data collection.

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Social Stratification

The ranking of individuals and groups in a society based on their access to resources, power, and prestige.

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Legitimation of Inequality

Belief systems and ideologies that justify the unequal distribution of resources and power in a society.

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Status

The amount of honor, respect, and prestige associated with a particular position or role in society.

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Social Class

A group of people who share similar economic positions and life chances based on their wealth, income, and occupation.

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Closed System of Stratification

A rigid system where social status is determined by birth and inherited. There is little or no social mobility.

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Open System of Stratification

A system that allows for social mobility based on individual achievements and efforts. Social status is determined by economic factors.

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Social Mobility

The movement of individuals or groups between different positions within a society's social stratification system.

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Social Structure

The organized patterns of social relationships and institutions in a society. It reflects the values, beliefs, and power dynamics.

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Weber's Three-Component Theory

Max Weber's theory that social difference is determined by class, status, and power. These factors are interconnected and can influence each other.

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Class (Weber)

A person's economic position in society, based on factors like birth and individual achievement.

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Status (Weber)

A person's social prestige or honor, which may or may not be influenced by their class.

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Power (Weber)

A person's ability to get their way despite resistance, based on their level of influence over others.

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Symbolic Interactionism

A perspective in sociology that emphasizes how people create and interpret meaning through symbolic interactions.

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George Herbert Mead

A key figure in Symbolic Interactionism, known for his ideas about how individuals develop their sense of self through interactions with others and society.

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Charles Horton Cooley

Another important figure in Symbolic Interactionism, best known for his concept of the 'looking-glass self'

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Marxism

A social theory that emphasizes class conflict and the struggle between the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class) as the driving force of social change.

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Communist Manifesto

A political document written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that outlines the history and critique of capitalism, advocating for a communist revolution.

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Das Kapital

A major work by Karl Marx that analyzes the dynamics of capitalism and its inherent contradictions, arguing for its eventual downfall.

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Dialectical Materialism

A philosophical method used by Marx to understand historical development, arguing that change arises from the clash between opposing forces (thesis, antithesis, synthesis).

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Surplus Value

The difference between the value of a product and the cost of labor that produced it, according to Marx, representing the profits extracted by capitalists from the work of the proletariat.

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Labor Theory of Value

The idea that the value of a product is determined by the amount of labor needed to produce it, as proposed by Marx, contrasting with the subjective theory of value.

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Historical Materialism

A theory of history that explains social development through the lens of material conditions and the means of production, including different modes of production (e.g., feudalism, capitalism).

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Karl Marx

A German philosopher and economist known for his critiques of capitalism and his ideas on class struggle and historical materialism.

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The Communist Manifesto

A political document by Marx and Engels that critiques capitalism and proposes a communist solution through revolution.

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Labor Theory of Value (LTV)

Marx's theory stating that the value of a product is determined by the labor needed to produce it, not just supply and demand.

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Class Struggle

The conflict between social classes (e.g., Bourgeoisie and Proletariat) due to their opposing interests and power dynamics.

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Ascribed Status

A social position assigned to an individual at birth, based on factors like family, race, or gender. It is often inherited and difficult to change.

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Achieved Status

A social position earned through personal effort, talent, or achievement. It is typically based on education, occupation, or personal accomplishments.

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Looking-Glass Self

Charles Horton Cooley's concept that our self-image is based on how we perceive others see us. It emphasizes the importance of social feedback in shaping self-identity.

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Symbolism

The subjective meanings that individuals assign to objects, events, or behaviors based on their personal experiences, beliefs, and values.

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Social Interaction

The ongoing process of communication and exchange between individuals, shaping the meanings of symbols, creating shared understandings, and influencing behaviors.

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Shared Understandings

Common interpretations and meanings that emerge through social interactions, allowing individuals to effectively communicate and coordinate their actions.

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Study Notes

Research Methodology

  • Research is a systematic approach to collecting and analyzing data to understand phenomena (Leedy and Ormrod, 1994).
  • Research methodology is the guiding principle for research, determining the general approach and specific methods (Dawson, 2019).
  • Research methodology differs from methods; methods are tools for data collection.

Research Philosophy

  • Research philosophy (paradigms) comprises underlying assumptions and beliefs that shape methodology and methods.
  • Two key pillars are epistemology (nature of knowledge) and ontology (nature of reality).
  • Different philosophical approaches include objectivism, constructivism, positivism, interpretivism, feminism, subjectivism, and postmodernism.

Research Methods

  • Methods are the tools used to gather data, encompassing various approaches like action research, case studies, surveys, ethnography, grounded theory, questionnaires, interviews, and observations.

Benefits of Research

  • Offers a deeper understanding of the subject.
  • Examines various aspects, using primary and secondary data sources.
  • Resolves complex problems through analysis and measurement.
  • Aids hypothesis formation (by analyzing established assumptions).

Steps in the Scientific Method

  • Make an observation (or define a problem).
  • Form a measurable research question.
  • Form a testable explanation (hypothesis).
  • Make a prediction based on the hypothesis.
  • Test the prediction.
  • Iterate: use results to create new hypotheses.

Research Design

  • Research design is the blueprint guiding investigators to determine whom to study, what to observe, how to collect data, and when.
  • Four basic research designs include descriptive (e.g., censuses), survey-explanatory/attitudinal, correlational, and experimental (true/control group).

Factors Influencing Research Methods

  • The scientific approach to understanding social phenomena.
  • Research philosophy (ontology and epistemology).
  • Research approach (deductive-inductive).
  • Required data type (descriptive/inferential, relationship/group difference).

Data Collection Approaches

  • Monomethod — one method (e.g., questionnaire)
  • Multimethod— multiple methods (e.g., questionnaire and official statistics)
  • Primary methods are used for original data collection (e.g., questionnaires, surveys; probability sampling — simple random, systematic, stratified random, cluster, multi-stage).

Advantages and Disadvantages of Probability Sampling

  • Advantages: Representative samples, generalizability (external validity), practicality (easy).
  • Disadvantages: Possibility of biased samples, superficial data.

Quantitative Research – Primary Data

  • Statistics is a key part of quantitative research.
  • Statistics helps analyze numerical data to identify trends and make inferences.
  • Example official statistics types such as births, deaths, crimes, employment, etc. are used in various fields.

Qualitative Research

  • Qualitative research seeks to understand and interpret experiences (e.g., feelings, perceptions).
  • Qualitative research uses non-numerical data such as text, video, or audio.
  • Qualitative research explores experiences in depth.
  • Qualitative sampling methods include purposive, criterion, snowball, extreme/typical case, and convenience sampling.

Qualitative Research Designs

  • Grounded theory
  • Ethnography
  • Action research
  • Phenomenology
  • Narrative

Data Analysis Approaches

  • Content Analysis: Categorizes common words, phrases, and ideas in qualitative data.
  • Thematic Analysis: Identifies patterns and themes in qualitative data.
  • Textual Analysis: Examines the content, structure, and design of texts.
  • Discourse Analysis: Studies communication about how language is used to achieve effects in contexts.

Criteria for Evaluating Research

  • Quantitative: Internal validity (causality), external validity (generalizability), reliability (consistency), objectivity (impartiality).
  • Qualitative: Credibility (accuracy), transferability (applicability), dependability (reproducibility), confirmability (bias).

Strategies for Improving Trustworthiness

  • Triangulation: Using multiple methods for data collection to enhance accuracy.
  • Peer Examination: Reviewing results by a peer for consistency.
  • Thick/Rich Description: Providing detailed descriptions of the context and participant perspectives.
  • Audit Trail: Documenting all steps of the research process.
  • Member Checking: Confirming findings with research participants.
  • Reflexivity: Acknowledging the positionality and subjectivity of the researcher.

Challenges/Issues

  • Hawthorne Effect: Participants modifying behavior due to awareness of being observed.
  • Observer Expectancy Effect: Researchers’ views influencing participant responses.
  • Artificial Scenario Effect: Data compromised by artificial or contrived study environments.

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Description

Explore the concepts and principles of research methodology, including its various paradigms and methods of data collection. This quiz covers the differences between methodology and methods, as well as the philosophical underpinnings of research. Test your understanding with various questions designed to enhance your knowledge of research practices.

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