Research Methodologies Overview

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary focus of conversation analysis?

  • Examining the vocabulary used in different languages
  • Understanding rules that govern social interaction (correct)
  • Analyzing the grammatical correctness of speech
  • Studying the structure of dialogues in literature

Which type of research is characterized by firsthand observation and study by the researcher?

  • Tertiary research
  • Secondary research
  • Meta-analysis
  • Primary research (correct)

What is a common benefit of using structured interviews?

  • Reduced bias and increased reliability (correct)
  • Increased bias from participant responses
  • More detailed and nuanced data collection
  • High flexibility in asking follow-up questions

What does critical discourse analysis examine in relation to language?

<p>The relationship between language and social power (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant ethical requirement for research when involving human participants?

<p>Ensuring informed consent from participants (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key disadvantage of unstructured interviews?

<p>Time consumption in the data collection process (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does semi-structured interviewing aim to combine?

<p>Standardization and individualized interaction (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What risk associated with research involves the possibility of harm to participants?

<p>Risk of harm (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept describes the influence of researchers' presence on participants’ behavior?

<p>Hawthorne effect (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of research is performed by others to reach conclusions about a topic?

<p>Secondary research (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of increasing sample size on sampling error?

<p>Sampling error decreases as sample size increases (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which sampling method involves selecting every nth subject from a population?

<p>Systematic sampling (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of sampling selects subjects based on specific characteristics?

<p>Purposive sampling (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key feature of a control group in an experiment?

<p>It receives no treatment at all (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of research primarily involves examining the validity of a hypothesis?

<p>Quantitative research (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a major problem that must be addressed when conducting surveys?

<p>Non-response bias (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes stratified random sampling from simple random sampling?

<p>It selects from defined subgroups of the population (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what situation is a snowball sample primarily used?

<p>To research hard-to-reach populations through referrals (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of a confidence interval in statistical inference?

<p>To quantify the margin of error for estimates (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which sampling technique is least likely to yield random results?

<p>Convenience sampling (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes independent variables in research?

<p>They can be manipulated or controlled. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes nominal variables?

<p>They consist of categories with no inherent ranking. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of descriptive statistics?

<p>To describe basic features of the data in a study. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a sample represent in research?

<p>A subset selected for investigation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what situation can sample bias occur?

<p>When the sample is not drawn randomly. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about dependent variables is correct?

<p>They vary in relation to independent variables. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the measure of central tendency known as the median?

<p>The midpoint in a distribution of values. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the standard deviation measure in a dataset?

<p>The dispersion of values from the mean. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a representative sample?

<p>A sample that accurately reflects the population. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between correlation and causation?

<p>Correlation indicates a statistical relationship, whereas causation implies that one variable influences the other. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method involves prolonged immersion in a group to understand their culture?

<p>Ethnography (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary disadvantage of focus group discussions?

<p>Limited control compared to interviews (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Access to Information Act in Canada allow individuals to do?

<p>Access any record under the control of a federal government institution (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which type of study is data collected at multiple points in time from the same population?

<p>Longitudinal Study (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of documents does the criteria of 'authenticity' assess?

<p>If the document is genuine and what it claims to be (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does ethnomethodology primarily focus on studying?

<p>The unconscious codes behind everyday actions (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which criterion determines how much a study yields consistent results over multiple trials?

<p>Reliability (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of error occurs when a survey respondent provides inaccurate information?

<p>Respondent error/bias (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a methodological strength of surveys?

<p>Ability to cover large populations efficiently (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary focus of content analysis in research?

<p>Identifying patterns and themes in communication (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which research method is noted for its flexibility and high face validity?

<p>Focus Groups (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of survey design provides a snapshot of a single point in time?

<p>Cross-sectional Study (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following would NOT be considered a method of data collection in qualitative research?

<p>Surveys (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What can be a problem arising from differences in focus group participant backgrounds?

<p>Challenges in reliability and generalization (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Operationalization

The process researchers use to define and measure abstract concepts using concrete indicators and instruments.

Independent Variable

A factor that is controlled and manipulated by the researcher to see its effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured or observed in response to changes in the independent variable.

Nominal Variable

A variable with categories that have no inherent order or ranking.

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Ordinal Variable

A variable with categories that can be ranked, but the distance between categories is not equal.

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Interval/Ratio Variable

A variable with categories that can be ranked, and the distance between categories is equal.

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Correlation

A relationship between two variables where they vary together.

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Causation

A relationship where one variable directly causes a change in another.

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Sample

A subset of a population chosen for study.

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Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the overall population.

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Scientific Method

A logical research approach with explicit procedures, open to scrutiny, and a consensus on assumptions and methods.

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Primary Research

Research conducted by the researcher directly involving firsthand observation and study.

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Secondary Research

Research using existing information or studies conducted by others to draw conclusions or make arguments.

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Conversation Analysis

A study of the unspoken rules that govern social interaction, focusing on how people understand and act in conversations.

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Discourse Analysis

Exploring how language shapes social reality. Analyzing text, talk, and even images to understand their meaning and influence.

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Critical Discourse Analysis

An interdisciplinary approach examining how language reproduces power inequalities and social domination. Focuses on language as a social practice.

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Structured Interviews

Interviews using a pre-defined question schedule, providing uniformity and control over responses.

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Semi-Structured Interviews

Interviews with a prepared list of questions, but allowing flexibility for exploring additional details and insights.

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Unstructured Interviews

Interviews where the researcher focuses on the participant's perspective and encourages open discussion and exploration.

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Focus Groups

Small group discussions (6-7 people) to uncover conscious, semi-conscious, and unconscious psychological and socio-cultural characteristics.

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Sampling Error

The difference between the characteristics of a sample and the characteristics of the population from which it was selected.

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Simple Random Sampling

Every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.

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Stratified Random Sampling

The population is divided into subgroups based on certain characteristics (like age, gender, income), then a random sample is taken from within each subgroup.

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Cluster Sampling

The population is divided into groups (clusters), then a random sample of clusters is selected, and all individuals within the selected clusters are included in the sample.

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Convenience Sampling

Subjects are chosen based on their ease of access and availability.

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Purposive Sampling

Subjects are selected because they possess specific characteristics relevant to the study.

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What is the Hawthorne Effect?

A change in behavior that occurs when people know they are being observed or studied.

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Content Analysis

A research method used to systematically analyze the content of communication (like text, images, or videos).

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Mean

The average value of a set of numbers.

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Standard Deviation

A measure of how spread out the data is from the mean (average).

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Moderator (Focus Group)

The person who facilitates the discussion in a focus group, drawing information from participants and encouraging open dialogue.

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Dynamic Interaction (Focus Group)

The spontaneous, lively exchanges, voices, reactions, and ideas generated in a focus group, creating a synergistic group effect.

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Advantages of Focus Groups

Focus groups provide rich, in-depth data, similar to interviews. They are useful for assessing conversations about research topics and problems, offering non-reactive insights into personal stories and life structures. They are flexible, have high face validity, and provide fast results with low cost.

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Disadvantages of Focus Groups

Focus groups are set in an unnatural setting, simulating conversation. Behavior is limited to verbal response, focusing on psychological, cognitive, and attitudinal aspects. There is less control than in interviews, data can be hard to analyze, and moderators require specific skills. Differences between groups can impact reliability and generalization. The environment can be restrictive.

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Historical Research

A type of research that aims to understand how specific individuals behaved in the past and document how realities or practices came to be.

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Policy and Case Analysis

A type of research that focuses on specific individuals, social groups, or processes in the present day. It uses descriptive, interpretive, explanatory, evaluative, and reformist claims to understand these subjects.

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Ethnography

A research method where the researcher immerses themselves in a group for an extended period of time. It involves observing behavior, listening to conversations, and asking questions. Sometimes it focuses on the culture of a group, providing insight into people's behavior within that culture.

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Ethnomethodology

A method that studies the codes and unconscious belief systems that underlie our utterances and everyday actions. It analyzes dialogue, images, and narration in media like films, television shows, and social media to understand cultural codes and communication.

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Access to Information Act

A Canadian law that gives citizens, individuals, and corporations the right to request access to records held by federal government institutions.

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Privacy Act

A Canadian law that protects individuals' personal information held by the government, ensuring access and preventing unauthorized use and disclosure.

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Authenticity (Document Assessment)

The genuineness of a document, ensuring it is what it claims to be. This involves authenticating authorship using internal and external evidence.

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Credibility (Document Assessment)

The reliability of the content of a document, considering how distorted or biased it might be. It involves assessing the sincerity and accuracy of the information.

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Reliability (Research)

The consistency of a study, test, or measuring procedure in yielding the same results on repeated trials.

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Validity (Research)

The accuracy of a study in assessing the specific concepts the researcher is trying to measure.

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Study Notes

Scholar Research Process Overview

  • Research follows a logical, explicit procedure, open to scrutiny.
  • A consensus on assumptions and procedures is essential.
  • The hypothetico-deductive scheme (like Popper's) guides this process.

Research Types

  • Primary research: Researcher's firsthand observations and studies.
  • Secondary research: Research conducted by others; used to conclude a topic or build an argument.

Qualitative Research Methods

  • Conversation analysis: Studies the taken-for-granted rules shaping social interactions. Originates from ethnomethodology.
  • Discourse analysis: Examines how language constitutes social reality (includes images), and its impact.
  • Critical discourse analysis: Interdisciplinary approach; views language as social practice, focusing on how power and language interact to reproduce social and political dominance.

Producing Ethical Research

  • Voluntary participation: Participants must not feel coerced.
  • Informed consent: Participants understand procedures and risks.
  • Risk of harm avoidance: Researchers cannot put participants at risk (physical and psychological).
  • Confidentiality: Protecting participant information from unauthorized access.
  • Anonymity: Maintaining participant anonymity from researchers and others.
  • Privacy: Respecting individuals' control over personal information. Risks relate to identifiability and potential harms.

Types of Interviews

  • Structured interviews: Use a schedule (predetermined questions) to reduce bias and increase reliability, validity, and credibility. Simple, cost-effective, and efficient. Limitations: formal, inflexible, limited scope.
  • Semi-structured interviews: Interviewer has a guide but allows for flexibility. Advantages: balances structure and flexibility, high validity, detailed info. Disadvantages: low generalizability, higher risk of bias.
  • Unstructured interviews: Researchers have little control over participant responses; flexible but low reliability. Advantages: high validity, detailed/nuanced information, driven by participant. Disadvantages: low generalizability, low reliability, time-consuming.

Focus Groups

  • Small groups (up to 7) learn by discussing a specific topic. Guided or unguided.
  • Moderator: Facilitates discussion. Advantages: rich data, flexible, fast results, low cost. Disadvantages: unnatural setting, less control than interviews, data analysis challenges, moderator needs skill.

Historical/Policy/Case Study Analysis

  • Historical research: Examines past behaviors and the development of practices or realities.
  • Policy analysis: Examines specific individuals, social groups, or processes currently.
  • Case analysis: Provides descriptive, interpretative, explanatory, and evaluative/reformist claims.

Ethnography

  • Researcher immerses themselves in a group for an extended period to observe, listen, and interview.
  • Aims for a deep understanding of cultural behavior. Relies on multiple techniques, especially close observation (intensive field work). Highly reflexive.

Ethnomethodology

  • Studies the unwritten rules and beliefs behind our actions.
  • Adaptable to media analysis (films, television, social media). Relevant for intercultural communication.

Content Analysis

  • Detailed and systematic examination of material (written, visual, audio-visual) to identify patterns, themes, biases, etc.

Access to Information & Privacy (Canada)

  • Access to Information Act: Citizens can request federal government records.
  • Privacy Act: Protects personal information held by the government.

Document Criteria

  • Authenticity: Document's genuineness, authorship verified internally and externally.
  • Credibility: Degree of distortion in the document's content.
  • Sincerity: Accuracy, bias, political interest.
  • Meaning: Literal vs interpretive understanding of meaning and significance.

Problems with Validating Readings

  • Representativeness: Documents should reflect the larger universe.
  • Survival/Availability: Relevant documents may be missing or inaccessible.
  • Reliability & Validity: Extent of consistency and accuracy in study.

Surveys

  • Large sample, close-ended questions, emphasizing breadth rather than depth.
  • Cross-sectional: Snapshot of one moment in time.
  • Longitudinal: Tracks patterns over time.
  • Trend study: Tracks changes in a population over time (different people each time).
  • Panel study: Tracks changes in the same people over time. Key consideration: response rate, interviewer effects, respondent bias, and survey instrument issues.

Operationalization

  • Transforming abstract concepts into measurable variables.

Variables

  • Qualities on which units of analysis vary.
  • Independent: controlled/manipulated.
  • Dependent: measured/registered (often the outcome).
  • Types: Nominal (categorical), Ordinal (ranked), Interval/ratio (equal intervals).

Correlation vs Causation

  • Correlation: Two variables vary together.
  • Causation: One variable causes a change in another.
  • Spurious relationship: A false relationship between variables due to a third factor.

Descriptive Statistics

  • Summarizes basic features of data.
  • Central tendency: Mean, median, mode.
  • Dispersion: Range, variance, standard deviation.

Diagrams

  • Visual representations of data: Bar charts, pie charts, histograms.

Sampling

  • Probability samples: Each member of the population has a known chance of selection (SRS, stratified, cluster, systematic).
  • Non-probability samples: Selection not based on probability (convenience, purposive, snowball).

Experimental Research

  • Aims to demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships.
  • Experimental group receives treatment; control group does not.
  • Random assignment ensures equal group composition, minimizing bias.
  • Pretest, experiment, post-test measures effects on dependent variables.

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