Memory

<p>The model fails to account for different types of material resulting in different depth memory traces.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The central executive</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The phonological loop</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The visuospatial sketchpad</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The episodic buffer</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Working memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Sensory memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Long-term memory (LTM)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Maintenance rehearsal</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Phonological loop</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Semantic memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Little is known about how the central executive works</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The verbal reasoning task made use of the phonological loop</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Recall is most accurate at a moderate level of anxiety.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Witnesses who saw a violent attack remembered fewer information than a control group.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The study had high ecological validity compared to lab studies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Context Reinstatement</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Changed Perspective</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is time-consuming to conduct and takes longer than a standard police interview.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Recall in Reverse Order</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It produces better recall than any of the conditions individually.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It requires police personnel to be trained, which can be expensive and time-consuming.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To disrupt the effect of schemas on recall.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Forgetting childhood memories</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>People remember material better when their mood at learning matches their mood at retrieval</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Misleading information can distort eyewitness testimony</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Recalling information in the same context as learning improves retrieval</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Bryan is able to divide his attention between driving and other tasks because it is an automated task for him. He can rely on his visuospatial sketchpad to control the driving task while using his phonological loop for talking and listening to music. On the other hand, Bob, who has less driving experience, needs to devote all his attention to the task of driving, resulting in difficulty in dividing his resources between different components of the working memory model.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Sensory register, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Rehearsal is necessary for information to be transferred from short-term memory to long-term memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Visual (picture), acoustic (sound), and semantic (meaning) encoding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>If maintenance rehearsal does not occur, information is forgotten and lost from short-term memory through the processes of displacement or decay.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Retrieval failure is where information is available in long-term memory but cannot be recalled because of the absence of appropriate cues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Context-based cues have been found to be important for retrieval, as recalling information in the same context in which it was learned can improve memory recall.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The experiment conducted by Baddeley and Hitch showed that the retrieval of information is improved if it occurs in the context in which it was learned.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>State-dependent retrieval refers to the phenomenon where individuals are more likely to recall information in the same state or mood in which it was encoded.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The multi-store model of memory states that depth of memory trace in long-term memory is simply a result of the amount of rehearsal that takes place. However, the ability to remember information from a celebrity magazine after reading it only once suggests that material we may pay more attention to or find more meaningful/interesting can result in a deeper memory trace, regardless of the amount of rehearsal.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>One strength of the multi-store model of memory is that it provides a good understanding of the structure and process of short-term memory. This allows researchers to expand on the model and conduct experiments to improve its validity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>One limitation of the cognitive interview is that it is a time-consuming method compared to a standard police interview.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The three types of long-term memory proposed by Tulving are episodic memory, semantic memory, and procedural memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The Yerkes-Dodson effect states that when anxiety is at low and high levels, EWT is less accurate than if anxiety is at a medium level. Recall improves as anxiety increases up to an optimal point and then declines.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The main technique used in the cognitive interview is context reinstatement, which involves mentally recreating an image of the situation, including details of the environment and the individual's emotional state at the time of the incident.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>One criticism of the study by Clifford and Scott (1978) is that the high stress levels experienced by the witnesses may have been due to surprise rather than anxiety, which could have influenced their memory recall.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A strength of the study by Yuille and Cutshall (1986) is that it had high ecological validity compared to lab studies, as it involved real witnesses of a shooting incident in a real-world setting.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The purpose of recalling the situation from a different point of view is to disrupt the effect of schemas on recall.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>One limitation of the cognitive interview is that it is time-consuming to conduct and takes much longer than a standard police interview.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Research has shown that using a combination of 'report everything' and 'context reinstatement' produced better recall than any of the conditions individually.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A final criticism is that police personnel have to be trained, and this can be expensive and time-consuming.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>One criticism of the cognitive interview is that it is time-consuming to train police officers to use this method.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The main limitation of the Working Memory Model is that it does not fully explain how information is transferred from short-term memory to long-term memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>One limitation is the fact that little is known about how the central executive works. It is an important part of the model, but its exact role is unclear.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Baddeley and Hitch conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform two tasks at the same time (dual task technique). A digit span task required them to repeat a list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task which required them to answer true or false to various questions (e.g., B is followed by A.). Results: As the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer to answer the reasoning questions, but not much longer – only fractions of a second. And they didn’t make any more errors in the verbal reasoning tasks as the number of digits increased. Conclusion: The verbal reasoning task made use of the central executive, and the digit span task made use of the phonological loop.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Although proactive and retroactive interference is reliable and robust effects, there are a number of problems with interference theory as an explanation for forgetting. First, interference theory tells us little about the cognitive processes involved in forgetting. Secondly, the majority of research into the role of interference in forgetting has been carried out in a laboratory using lists of words, a situation that is likely to occur fairly infrequently in everyday life (i.e., low ecological validity). As a result, it may not be possible to generalize from the findings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Semantic memory is more resistant to interference than other types of memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>concentration</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>automated</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>auditory</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>visual</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>cues</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>retrieval</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>retrieval</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>accident</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>verbal</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>verbal</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>confused</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>telephone</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>rehearsal</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>rehearsed</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>rehearsal</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>long-term, short-term</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>schemas</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>time-consuming</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>time</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>schemas</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>time-consuming</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>unitary</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>short-term</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>LTM</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>semantic</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>'contacted'</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The cognitive interview involves a number of techniques: Context Reinstatement Trying to mentally recreate an image of the situation, including details of the environment, such as the weather conditions, and the individual’s emotional state, including their feelings at the time of the incident. This makes memories accessible and provides emotional and contextual cues.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>declines</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>end</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Sensory Register = Duration: ¼ to ½ second, Capacity: all sensory experience, Encoding: sense specific Short-Term Memory (STM) = Capacity: limited, Encoding: visual, acoustic, semantic Long-Term Memory (LTM) = Capacity: potentially unlimited, Encoding: semantic</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Sensory Memory = Information you get from your sense, your eyes, and ears Short-Term Memory (STM) = Information that has been rehearsed and can last for a long time Long-Term Memory (LTM) = Information that has been encoded and stored over a long period of time</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Visual = Encoding information as a picture Acoustic = Encoding information as a sound Semantic = Encoding information based on its meaning</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Maintenance Rehearsal = Repetition that keeps information in short-term memory Displacement or Decay = Processes by which information is forgotten and lost from short-term memory Transfer to Long-Term Memory = Process that occurs only if information is rehearsed in short-term memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Central Executive = Supervisory function and acts as a filter, determining which information is attended to Phonological Loop = Temporary storage system for holding auditory information in a speech-based form Visuospatial Sketchpad = Temporary memory system for holding visual and spatial information Episodic Buffer = Acts as a 'backup' store for information that communicates with both long-term memory and the slave system components of working memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Procedural Knowledge = Involves 'knowing how'; for example, playing the piano or riding a bike Semantic Knowledge = Involves 'knowing that'; for example, knowing that Paris is the capital of France Episodic Knowledge = Involves 'knowing that'; for example, knowing that you caught the bus to college today Declarative Knowledge = Involves 'knowing that'; for example, London is the capital of England</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Phonological Store = Part of the phonological loop that stores words you hear Articulatory Process = Part of the phonological loop that allows maintenance rehearsal Visual Cache = Part of the visuospatial sketchpad that stores visual data about form and color Episodic Buffer = Part of the working memory model that acts as a 'backup' store for information that communicates with both long-term memory and the slave system components of working memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Amnesic Patients = Tend to have difficulty in retaining episodic and semantic information following the onset of amnesia Bryan = Can hold conversations or listen to music while driving with little difficulty Bob = Requires so much concentration while driving that he often misses what his driving instructor is telling him Experienced Driver = Doesn't need to devote all attention to the task of driving and can perform other tasks at the same time</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>KF Case Study = Supports the Working Memory Model by showing separate STM components for visual and verbal information Baddeley and Hitch Experiment = Verbal reasoning task made use of the central executive, and the digit span task made use of the phonological loop Postman (1960) Study = Provides evidence to support the interference theory of forgetting, specifically retroactive interference Chandler (1989) Study = States that students who study similar subjects at the same time often experience interference</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Central Executive = An important part of the model, but its exact role is unclear Visuospatial Sketchpad = Responsible for holding visual and spatial information Phonological Loop = Involved in verbal tasks and impaired in the KF Case Study Long-term Memory = Not explained by the model in terms of its link with working memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Proactive Interference = Older memories interfere with the recall of newer memories Retroactive Interference = Newer memories interfere with the recall of older memories Semantic Interference = Occurs when similar meanings interfere with the recall of specific words or events Episodic Interference = Occurs when similar events interfere with the recall of specific episodes or experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Sensory Memory = Holds information for a very short period of time, such as a fraction of a second Short-term Memory = Limited in duration and capacity Long-term Memory = Has unlimited duration and capacity Working Memory = Involves the active processing of information in short-term memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Recall from a Changed Perspective = Trying to mentally recreate the situation from different points of view Recall in Reverse Order = The witness is asked to describe the scene in a different chronological order Report Everything = The witness is encouraged to report all details of the event, even if they seem irrelevant or trivial Context Reinstatement = The witness is asked to mentally recreate the context of the event, including their emotional and physical state</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Time-consuming to conduct = The cognitive interview takes much longer than a standard police interview Time-consuming to train police officers = Training police officers to use this method is a lengthy process Expensive and time-consuming = The cost and time required to train police personnel is a criticism of this method Some elements may be more valuable than others = Certain techniques in the cognitive interview may be more effective than others</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Recalling from a Changed Perspective = Disrupts the effect that schemas have on recall Recalling in Reverse Order = Prevents the influence of pre-existing schema Report Everything = Encourages the witness to provide more detailed information Context Reinstatement = Helps the witness recreate the original context of the event</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Time-consuming = The cognitive interview takes longer to conduct than a standard police interview Expensive = Training police personnel in this method can be costly Training = It is time-consuming to train police officers to use this method Effectiveness of techniques = Some elements of the cognitive interview may be more valuable than others</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Recalling from a Changed Perspective = Disrupts the effect of schemas on recall Recalling in Reverse Order = Prevents the influence of pre-existing schemas Report Everything = Increases the amount of information recalled Context Reinstatement = Enhances the retrieval of information by recreating the context</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Recall from a Changed Perspective = Trying to mentally recreate the situation from different points of view Recall in Reverse Order = The witness is asked to describe the scene in a different chronological order Report Everything = The witness is encouraged to report all details of the event, even if they seem irrelevant or trivial Context Reinstatement = The witness is asked to mentally recreate the context of the event, including their emotional and physical state</p> Signup and view all the answers