Psychology Chapter 8: Memory Flashcards

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Questions and Answers

In what ways is memory like an information-processing system?

The mind serves as a processing system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information.

What is sensory memory?

Sensory memory holds incoming information just long enough for it to be recognized.

What is iconic memory and how did spelling assess the duration of Iconic Memory?

Iconic memory refers to our visual sensory register.

What are memory codes?

Mental representations that allow information to be retained in short-term and long-term memory. Signup and view all the answers

What is chunking?

Chunking involves combining individual items into larger units of meaning to aid recall. Signup and view all the answers

Differentiate between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal.

Maintenance rehearsal focuses on repetition, while elaborative rehearsal emphasizes the meaning and connections to existing knowledge. Signup and view all the answers

Why do researchers refer to short-term memory as working memory?

Working memory actively processes and manipulates information, while short-term memory is passive and sequential. Signup and view all the answers

Identify three components of working memory.

<ol> <li>Auditory working memory (phonological loop), 2. Visual-spatial working memory (visuospatial sketchpad), 3. The episodic buffer.</li> </ol> Signup and view all the answers

What is the serial position effect? Under what conditions do primary and recency effects occur?

The serial position effect indicates recall is influenced by an item's position in a series. Signup and view all the answers

According to the three-component model, why do primary and recency effects occur?

Primary effects result from transferring early words to long-term memory, while recency effects are due to information still being in short-term memory. Signup and view all the answers

Distinguish between effortful and automatic processing.

Effortful processing requires conscious attention and intentional encoding, while automatic processing occurs without effort. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concept of 'depth of processing'.

The deeper we process information, the better it is remembered. Signup and view all the answers

How effectively do maintenance and elaborative rehearsal process information into long-term memory?

Maintenance rehearsal is less effective than elaborative rehearsal for long-term memory transfer. Signup and view all the answers

Why do hierarchies enhance memory?

Hierarchies enhance memory by creating associations between concepts that improve understanding. Signup and view all the answers

Why does chunking enhance memory?

Chunking helps to widen the information-processing bottleneck caused by the limited capacity of short-term memory. Signup and view all the answers

How do mnemonic devices enhance memory?

Mnemonic devices reorganize information into meaningful units and provide extra retrieval cues. Signup and view all the answers

How does visual imagery enhance memory?

Visual imagery enhances memory by storing information in both verbal and non-verbal codes. Signup and view all the answers

What is the method of loci?

A memory technique that involves taking an imaginary stroll through an environment to link items with specific locations. Signup and view all the answers

What is a schema? Explain how they influence encoding.

A schema is a mental framework that organizes thoughts about aspects of the world. Signup and view all the answers

In what sense are schemas and expert knowledge related?

Expert knowledge can be viewed as the development of schemas that encode information into meaningful patterns. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concepts of associative networks.

Memory can be represented as an associative network, where concepts activate related ideas. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concept of priming.

Priming refers to the activation of one concept by another, enhancing recall of related information. Signup and view all the answers

How do neural network models differ from associative network models?

Neural network models represent concepts through simultaneous activation of patterns rather than single nodes. Signup and view all the answers

Explain declarative memory.

Declarative memory involves factual knowledge, categorized into episodic and semantic memory. Signup and view all the answers

Explain procedural memory.

Procedural memory involves skills and actions performed in specific situations. Signup and view all the answers

What are explicit and implicit memories? Describe ways to measure them.

Explicit memories are consciously retrieved, while implicit memories influence behavior without awareness. Signup and view all the answers

What is a retrieval cue?

A retrieval cue is any stimulus that activates information stored in long-term memory. Signup and view all the answers

Why does having multiple, self-generated retrieval cues enhance recall?

Multiple self-generated cues lead to deeper and more elaborate processing. Signup and view all the answers

What are flashbulb memories and do they always provide an accurate picture? Describe some evidence.

Flashbulb memories are vivid recollections of significant events, often influenced by emotions. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the encoding specificity principle.

Memories are enhanced when retrieval conditions match encoding conditions. Signup and view all the answers

What is context-dependent memory?

Context-dependent memory refers to improved recall when in the same environment where information was learned. Signup and view all the answers

What is state-dependent memory?

State-dependent memory proposes that retrieval is more effective when internal states match during learning. Signup and view all the answers

What is mood-congruent recall?

Mood-congruent recall suggests we remember information that aligns with our current emotional state. Signup and view all the answers

What is Ebbinghaus forgetting curve and what factors contribute to his rapid, substantial forgetting?

Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve shows rapid initial memory loss, followed by gradual decline. Signup and view all the answers

Identify encoding processes that have been hypothesized to contribute to forgetting.

Many memory failures arise from failing to encode information properly. Signup and view all the answers

What is the decay theory?

Decay theory proposes that memories fade over time due to inactivity. Signup and view all the answers

What is the interference theory?

Interference theory asserts that competing memories impede recall. Signup and view all the answers

What are the two major types of interference?

Proactive interference and retroactive interference. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the nature and some possible causes of retrograde amnesia.

Retrograde amnesia is memory loss for events that occurred prior to amnesia onset. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the nature and some possible causes of anterograde amnesia.

Anterograde amnesia refers to memory loss for events occurring after amnesia onset. Signup and view all the answers

Describe the nature and possible causes of infantile amnesia.

Infantile amnesia is memory loss for early experiences, often due to underdeveloped encoding processes. Signup and view all the answers

Differentiate between dementia and Alzheimer's.

Dementia refers to cognitive deficits including memory loss, while Alzheimer's is a specific disease causing dementia. Signup and view all the answers

What is prospective memory?

Prospective memory involves remembering to perform activities in the future. Signup and view all the answers

How do Bartlett's research and studies of boundary extension illustrate memory construction?

Bartlett's research shows that memory is influenced by cultural experiences and expectations. Signup and view all the answers

Explain the misinformation effect in relation to eyewitness testimony.

The misinformation effect describes how misleading information can distort memory recall in eyewitnesses. Signup and view all the answers

Explain how source confusion contributes to misinformation effects.

Source confusion occurs when individuals remember information but forget its origin. Signup and view all the answers

What major roles does the hippocampus play in memory?

The hippocampus helps encode and retrieve long-term declarative memories. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the cerebral cortex play in memory?

The cerebral cortex is involved in storing and processing complex memories. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the amygdala play in memory?

The amygdala encodes emotionally arousing aspects of stimuli, enhancing long-term memory formation. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the cerebellum play in memory?

The cerebellum is important for forming procedural memories. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the thalamus play in memory?

The thalamus acts as a major sensory relay station and is involved in memory encoding and retrieval. Signup and view all the answers

What is long term potentiation?

Long-term potentiation is the enduring increase in synaptic strength. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Memory and Information Processing

Memory functions as a processing system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information.
Sensory memory is the initial stage that briefly holds incoming stimuli, processed by sensory registers.
Iconic memory is a visual sensory register that captures images for a brief duration.

Memory Codes

Information must be coded to progress from sensory memory to short-term and long-term memory, through visual, phonological, or semantic encoding.
Chunking combines smaller units into larger, meaningful groups to aid recall.

Rehearsal Techniques

Maintenance rehearsal keeps information active in short-term memory through repetition.
Elaborative rehearsal involves relating new information to existing knowledge, enhancing long-term retention.

Working Memory

Working memory is a dynamic system that actively processes information, supporting complex cognitive tasks like problem-solving.
It consists of three components:
- Auditory working memory (phonological loop)
- Visual-spatial working memory (visuospatial sketchpad)
- Episodic buffer for temporary storage.

Serial Position Effect

Recall is influenced by an item’s position in a sequence, with the primary effect favoring early words and recency effect favoring late items.

Effortful vs. Automatic Processing

Effortful processing requires conscious effort (e.g., note-taking), while automatic processing occurs without intention (e.g., spatial layout).

Depth of Processing

Deeper semantic encoding leads to better memory recall compared to superficial processing.

Memory Enhancement Techniques

Hierarchies organize information into structured categories, enhancing memory retrieval.
Mnemonic devices reorganize information into more meaningful units, facilitating recall.

Visual Imagery

Dual coding theory posits that information stored in both verbal and non-verbal formats increases retrieval chances.

Memory Techniques

The method of loci relates to spatial memory where items are memorized by visualizing them in specific locations.

Schemas in Memory

Schemas are mental frameworks that shape how we perceive and encode information, influencing memory retrieval.

Associative Networks and Priming

Memory is represented as interconnected concepts in an associative network, leading to spreading activation.
Priming activates related concepts, enhancing retrieval likelihood.

Types of Memory

Declarative memory includes episodic (personal experiences) and semantic (general knowledge) memory.
Procedural memory encompasses skills and actions performed without conscious thought.

Memory Retrieval

Explicit memories require conscious recall, while implicit memories influence behavior unconsciously.
Retrieval cues are stimuli that trigger memory activation.

Memory Recall Techniques

Self-generated associations promote deeper elaboration and enhance recall compared to presented cues.

Flashbulb Memories

These vivid recollections occur during emotionally significant events and can be inaccurate despite their clarity.

Context and State-Dependent Memory

Retrieval is facilitated when context during retrieval matches the encoding environment.
State-dependent memory suggests retrieval is better when internal states (mood, awareness) are the same during learning and recall.

Forgetting Theories

Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve shows rapid initial memory loss followed by gradual decline, influenced by information meaninglessness.
Decay theory suggests memory trace fades over time; interference theory states that other memories can obstruct recall.

Amnesia Types

Retrograde amnesia involves loss of memory for events before amnesia onset, while anterograde amnesia refers to inability to form new memories post-onset.
Infantile amnesia is the inability to recall early childhood experiences, linked to immature memory encoding.

Dementia and Alzheimer’s

Dementia encompasses cognitive decline, with Alzheimer’s being the most common cause, characterized by memory and cognitive deficits.

Prospective Memory

Involves remembering to perform planned future actions, notably linked to frontal lobe function.

Memory Construction

Memory construction shows how existing knowledge alters perception and recall of information, depicting the malleability of memories.

Misinformation Effect

Post-event information can distort memories, particularly in eyewitness testimony, leading to wrongful convictions.

Brain Structures in Memory

The hippocampus is crucial for encoding and retrieving long-term memories.
The cerebral cortex stores long-term memories, while the amygdala processes emotional memories.
The cerebellum is vital for procedural memory formation, and the thalamus acts as a sensory relay that supports memory encoding and retrieval.

Long-Term Potentiation

Refers to a lasting increase in synaptic strength as a mechanism involved in memory formation and learning.

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Description

Explore the fundamentals of memory in psychology with these flashcards based on Chapter 8. This quiz covers concepts such as information processing, sensory memory, and various types of memory systems. Test your knowledge and understanding of how memory functions in our daily lives.