Reformation Recap

The belief that salvation is achieved through faith in Jesus Christ alone, not through good works.

The belief that all Christians are equal in the eyes of God and have the right to interpret the Bible for themselves.

A group of reformers who believed in adult baptism, separation of church and state, and the equality of all believers.

A Swiss reformer who opposed all religious images and icons.

A reformer who believed in predestination, the idea that God has already chosen who will be saved.

The Holy Roman Emperors were elected by princes and nobles, and crowned by the Pope. This system led to conflicts between the Church and State due to competing interests.

Simony refers to the buying and selling of church offices. The Investiture Controversy emerged as a major conflict between the Pope and the kings of Europe concerning the appointment of bishops.

Pope St. Gregory VII enforced clerical celibacy, meaning priests couldn't marry. This caused a major confrontation with Henry IV, who tried to appoint bishops himself, leading to a power struggle.

Philip IV of France faced financial difficulties due to costly wars. To raise funds, he seized Church assets and taxed the clergy. Actions that led to a conflict with Pope Boniface VIII, who condemned his actions.

The Avignon Papacy refers to a period when the popes were moved to Avignon in France. This move is considered a time of corruption and loss of political authority for the papacy, causing distrust and reform movements.

John Wycliffe believed that the Church's wealth should be controlled by the state, all individuals could be priests, and the Bible should be translated into the vernacular. His ideas were influential in the Bohemian Reformation.

Jan Hus spread Wycliffe's ideas in the Czech Republic, advocating for the Bible's dominance over the papacy and opposing indulgences. He was executed for his beliefs, leading to protests and crusades against his followers.

Desiderius Erasmus emphasized the importance of individual education and studying the Bible, which he believed would lead to better morals. Though critical of the Church, he remained within Catholicism.

Henry VIII's break from the Catholic Church, establishing the Church of England with himself as the head, due to his desire for an annulment from Catherine of Aragon and the Pope's refusal.

The forced closure of monasteries and convents in England, ordered by Henry VIII through the Dissolution Act, seizing their land and wealth to fund his wars and lavish lifestyle.

A period of intense Catholic revival and reform in response to the Protestant Reformation, aimed at reaffirming Catholic doctrines and practices, strengthening the Church's authority, and combating heresy.

A key council of the Catholic Church held in Trent, Italy, from 1543-1563, focused on addressing the challenges and criticisms raised by the Protestant Reformation by reaffirming Catholic beliefs, reforming internal practices, and promoting education and piety.

The Society of Jesus, a Catholic religious order founded in 1540, played a crucial role in the Counter-Reformation by promoting education, missionary work, and combating Protestant influence.

Henry VIII broke away from the Catholic Church to establish the Church of England, making himself its head, mainly because the Pope refused to grant him an annulment from Catherine of Aragon, allowing him to remarry.

The Dissolution Act, enforced by Henry VIII, led to the forced closure of monasteries and convents in England, seizing their land and wealth to fund his wars and extravagant lifestyle.

Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry VIII, came to power after the Catholic reign of Mary I, establishing a middle ground between Catholic and Protestant practices. Though not openly persecuting Protestants, she reversed the Catholic restoration initiated by Mary I.

The Counter-Reformation was a Catholic revival and reform movement in response to the Protestant Reformation. The Catholic Church aimed to strengthen its authority, clarify its doctrines, and counter Protestant influences by addressing issues of corruption and promoting education.

The Council of Trent (1543-1563) was a crucial part of the Counter-Reformation. The Catholic Church reaffirmed its doctrines, standardized practices (including the Latin Mass), and reformed internal issues, aiming to unify and strengthen its teachings.

Elizabeth I, Queen of England, was a powerful ruler who challenged Spain's dominance. She supported rebels in the Netherlands, encouraged piracy against Spain, and ultimately defeated the Spanish Armada, securing England's naval power.

The English colonization of North America began with Roanoke, a mysterious settlement that vanished without a trace. This early attempt foreshadowed the future of English expansion in the New World.

After Elizabeth I's death, James I, a Stuart king, ascended the English throne. James I aimed for absolute power, but faced resistance from Parliament. He authorized the King James Bible translation and established Jamestown, the first permanent English settlement in North America.

The Virginia colony prospered through tobacco cultivation, relying heavily on indentured servants and later slaves. This established a plantation economy that shaped the socio-economic landscape of the American colonies.

The New England colonies, founded by Puritans seeking religious freedom, emerged as a center of trade for the English colonies in North America. These colonies were known for their strong religious values and self-governance.

The Dutch Republic, established by Dutch rebels against Spanish rule during the Eighty Years War, became a major maritime power in the 17th century. Their independence was recognized in 1648, marking the beginning of their global expansion.

The Dutch encountered a significant challenge in trading with Spain and Portugal, who held monopolies on spices and silver. Their ambition to establish new routes and markets eventually led them to the Pacific Ocean and the Indian Ocean.

The Dutch East India Company was a powerful trading enterprise that expanded Dutch influence in the East. They exploited trade routes and markets, contributing to the growth of their global empire and establishing a lasting legacy in Asia.

The exchange of plants, animals, diseases and ideas between the Old World (Europe, Asia, and Africa) and the New World (the Americas) following Columbus's voyages.

A system of forced labor used by the Spanish in their American colonies. Indigenous people were assigned to work for Spanish landowners and had to pay tribute.

The Spanish conquerors who claimed land and wealth in the Americas, often using violence and force to subdue the indigenous populations. Famous examples include Hernan Cortes and Francisco Pizarro.

A system of forced labor where indigenous people were required to work for Spanish officials or colonists, and sometimes had to pay taxes in silver or other goods.

The forced movement of Africans to the Americas, primarily to work on plantations, a brutal system based on racial prejudice and exploitation.

The triangular trade route involved the exchange of goods between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. European manufactured goods were exchanged for slaves in Africa, slaves were transported to the Americas to work on plantations, and raw materials from the Americas were sent back to Europe.

The brutal middle leg of the triangular trade, involving the forced transportation of African slaves to the Americas. It was marked by horrific conditions, disease, and high mortality rates.

The Spanish system of colonial administration, where each area of the Americas was divided into a viceroyalty, ruled by a viceroy appointed by the king.

Martin Luther was a German monk and theologian who initiated the Protestant Reformation by challenging the Catholic Church's authority and doctrines. He emphasized the Bible's supremacy, challenged the selling of indulgences, and believed in sola fide (salvation through faith alone).

The Pope's political authority declined from the year 1000 to 1517 AD. During the 11th century, Pope Gregory VII asserted papal supremacy over monarchs, but by 1517, the Church faced internal corruption and challenges to its authority from secular rulers.

The Catholic Reformation, a period of revival within the Catholic Church, led to changes in art. Baroque art became prominent, characterized by dramatic and emotional imagery, elaborate decorations, and a focus on religious themes, often depicting scenes of saints, martyrs, and biblical stories.

Martin Luther believed in sola fide, salvation through faith in Christ alone. Zwingli emphasized the Bible's supremacy and simplicity of worship, rejecting images and rituals. Calvin believed in predestination—God predetermined who would be saved.

The Protestant Reformation in Switzerland, led by Zwingli, emphasized simplicity, leading to plain churches with few decorations. In England, under the Anglican Church, religious art became more restrained, emphasizing biblical stories but often maintaining traditional imagery with a reformed perspective.

Martin Luther, a German monk, began the Protestant Reformation by arguing that salvation could only be achieved through faith in Jesus Christ, not through good works. He believed the Bible was the ultimate authority, criticizing the selling of indulgences and the Church's hierarchy.

The Pope's political authority significantly weakened between 1000 AD and 1517 AD. While Pope Gregory VII in the 11th century asserted papal supremacy, by the 16th century, the Church faced internal corruption, challenges from secular rulers, and the growing popularity of Protestant ideas.

The Catholic Reformation, or Counter-Reformation, saw a shift in art towards Baroque style. This style, characterized by dramatic and emotional imagery, elaborate decorations, and vivid colors, aimed to inspire religious devotion. It was a response to the simplicity of Protestant art.

Henry VIII's desire for an annulment from Catherine of Aragon, which the Pope refused, led him to break with the Catholic Church and establish the Church of England. He dissolved monasteries, seizing their wealth, and appointed himself as the Supreme Head of the Church.

Vernacular, the common language of a region, played a crucial role in the Protestant Reformation. Translations of the Bible into vernacular languages enabled people to read and interpret the scriptures independently, challenging the Church's authority and fueling the movement's growth.

A system where people agreed to work for a set period of time in exchange for passage to the New World and land after their service was complete. It was a form of labor that differed from slavery, as indentured servants would eventually gain their freedom.

This rebellion, occurring in 1857, was triggered by a new type of rifle cartridge greased with animal fat, which offended both Hindus and Muslims who considered it sacrilegious. It was a major uprising against British rule in India.

A company that is owned by multiple shareholders. The British East India Company, for example, was a joint-stock company that was able to raise vast amounts of capital through investments from wealthy individuals.

These colonies, located in the northern region of British America, were known for their religious focus and self-governance. They were founded by Puritan groups seeking religious freedom and established strict religious laws.

The Dutch East India Company was granted a royal charter by the Dutch government, giving it the right to trade in Asia. This included the power to make war, govern territories, and mint its own coins. This made the company a powerful force in global trade.

The British East India Company rose to power by exploiting trade routes and establishing monopolies in India. Eventually, they gained political and military control, leading to the Sepoy Rebellion.

A joint-stock company is a business owned by multiple shareholders who invest capital and share in the profits. The British East India Company and Dutch East India Company were examples of this, making them large and powerful.

The Treaty of Utrecht, signed in 1713, ended the War of Spanish Succession and gave control of Gibraltar, Newfoundland, and Hudson Bay to Britain. This treaty marked a shift in European power.

A 1494 agreement between Spain and Portugal dividing the newly discovered lands of the Americas along a north-south line, granting Portugal control over Brazil and Spain dominion over the rest.

The Spanish colonial system used indigenous labor, often involving forced labor and harsh treatment. Under the encomienda, Indigenous people were assigned to Spanish landowners and expected to pay tribute. The repartimiento required Indigenous people to work for Spanish officials or colonists and sometimes pay taxes.

Martin Luther believed the Catholic Church had become corrupt, particularly due to the sale of indulgences, which he believed were a false promise of salvation. He also criticized the authority of the Pope and the emphasis on good works for salvation.

Henry VIII's break was driven by his desire for a divorce from Catherine of Aragon to marry Anne Boleyn. The Pope refused his request, leading him to establish the Church of England, making himself the supreme head.

John Calvin was a key figure in the Reformation, emphasizing predestination—the belief that God has already chosen who will be saved. Calvinism influenced art, emphasizing simplicity and religious themes. Sculptures and paintings often depicted moments of divine intervention or powerful biblical events.

Zwingli, unlike Luther, rejected images and rituals, believing in a simplified form of worship that focused purely on the Bible. He also differed from the Catholic Church by promoting a more direct connection with God, bypassing the need for intermediaries.

The Catholic Reformation aimed to restore the Church's authority, reform its practices, and address criticisms raised by the Protestant Reformation. The Council of Trent, a key meeting held in Trent (Italy), provided a platform for the Catholic Church to reaffirm its doctrines, clarify practices, and reassert its authority.