Recordkeeping Through the Ages

Questions and Answers

What is the estimated age of the depiction of three warty pigs found on cave walls?

At most 20,000 years ago

At least 30,000 years ago

At least 45,500 years ago (correct)

At least 40,000 years ago

What was used as an accounting method to record animals by 4000 BCE?

Wedge-like shapes engraved into clay (correct)

Hieroglyphics

Tally marks on bones

Cuneiform writing system

What was the primary purpose of recordkeeping in ancient Egypt?

For commercial and religious purposes (correct)

For astronomical observations and predictions

For scientific research and exploration

For artistic and cultural expression

What is the approximate size of the early writing tablet pictured in figure 1.1?

3.7 inches high and 2.7 inches wide Signup and view all the answers

What does the early writing tablet pictured in figure 1.1 record?

Allocation of beer Signup and view all the answers

Where was the early writing tablet pictured in figure 1.1 likely from?

Southern Iraq Signup and view all the answers

What is the estimated number of clay tablets in the Royal Archives of Ebla?

20,000 clay tablets Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary purpose of the Royal Archives of Ebla?

To record economic matters Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary advantage of papyrus as a recording medium?

Its ability to retain ink without blurring Signup and view all the answers

Who is credited with developing the first papermaking process?

Unknown Chinese inventors Signup and view all the answers

What was the main contribution of Jean Mabillon's De Re Diplomatica?

Establishing the provenance of written texts through analysis Signup and view all the answers

Who granted the first patent for a machine or method for impressing or transcribing letters?

Queen Anne of England Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary purpose of the General Register House in Edinburgh?

Housing the national archives of Scotland Signup and view all the answers

Who invented the first manual typewriter?

Christopher Latham Sholes and two colleagues Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary use of punched cards in the 1880 U.S. Census?

Computation and calculation Signup and view all the answers

What was the occupation of women who were hired to operate type writing machines?

Typewriters Signup and view all the answers

Where was the papermaking process first introduced in Europe?

Pergamum, Greece Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary motivation behind the appointment of the Lord Clerk Register in Scotland?

To manage the national archives Signup and view all the answers

What year was the Federal Records Act codified?

1950 Signup and view all the answers

What was established by the Federal Records Act?

National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) Signup and view all the answers

Who was central to the emergence of the Commercial Records Center (CRC) industry?

Emmet J. Leahy Signup and view all the answers

What was the main purpose of the first Guide to Records Retention Requirements published in 1955?

To detail records retention requirements Signup and view all the answers

Where is Archives II located?

College Park, Maryland Signup and view all the answers

What was President John F. Kennedy's motivation for installing a secret recording network?

To protect himself against officials Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of the Watergate scandal?

President Nixon resigned from office Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of the 'PROFS case'?

Agency components of the Executive Office of the President needed to take further steps to ensure complete records were preserved Signup and view all the answers

When did White House email start being archived in electronic form?

1994 Signup and view all the answers

What year did NARA issue electronic mail regulations applicable to all Executive branch agencies?

1995 Signup and view all the answers

What was the reason cited by the committee for not convicting President Biden of mishandling classified records?

The President's advanced age and poor memory Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary objective of the U.S. Federal Records Act of 1950?

To establish the framework for records management in federal agencies Signup and view all the answers

What was the significant feature of the UNIVAC computer developed in 1951?

It used magnetic tape for mass storage Signup and view all the answers

What was the estimated storage capacity of the RAMAC 305 computer developed in 1956?

About 4.4 MB of data Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the IBM 1311 computer developed in 1962?

It offered the first storage unit with removable disks in disk packs Signup and view all the answers

What was the main innovation of the 1964 IBM MT/ST technology?

The combination of a Selectric typewriter with a magnetic tape drive Signup and view all the answers

What was the reason for President Trump taking over 30 boxes of classified and unclassified presidential records to his residence at Mar-A-Lago?

The information was not specified in the content Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary advantage of the 1971 IBM 8" floppy disk?

Its portability and reusability Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of the investigation into President Biden's handling of classified records?

The investigation found evidence of willful retention and disclosure of classified materials Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the 1973 Vydec Word Processing system?

It marked the convergence of word and data processing functions Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the ENIAC computer developed in the 1940s?

It was the first electronic computer Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary function of the operator control board in the Remington Rand UNIVAC?

To control the central processor Signup and view all the answers

What was the consequence of President Trump's actions regarding the presidential records?

A criminal complaint was filed against him, charging him with violating the Espionage Act Signup and view all the answers

What is the equivalent of 1 kilobyte in bytes?

1,024 bytes Signup and view all the answers

What was the role of Merrick Garland in the context of the presidential records scandal?

He was the Attorney General who appointed a Special Counsel to investigate President Biden's handling of classified records Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary advantage of the Selectric typewriter over earlier electronic typewriters?

It allowed the operator to select from different type fonts Signup and view all the answers

What was the main innovation of the IBM 5100 Portable Computer?

Its ability to perform math problems and statistical techniques Signup and view all the answers

What is the equivalent of 1 megabyte in kilobytes?

1,024 kilobytes Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary function of the magnetic tape cartridges in the IBM 5100 Portable Computer?

To provide routines for math problems and statistical techniques Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary impact of the information age on recordkeeping?

A hybrid environment that includes digital records Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of ARPANET traffic was email by the end of the 1970s?

75% Signup and view all the answers

What is the estimated total number of business and consumer emails sent and received each day by the end of 2026?

408.2 billion Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the benefits of cloud-based email archiving solutions?

Reduced load on mail servers Signup and view all the answers

What is a feature provided by some email management systems?

Records management and retention functionality Signup and view all the answers

What is the expected number of worldwide IM accounts (not including Mobile Messaging) by the end of 2025?

9.5 billion Signup and view all the answers

What is an application that allows businesses to generate leads via messenger campaigns?

Facebook Messenger Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of an aggregator that enables users to communicate with users of different IM applications?

Microsoft’s One Messenger Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of an online chat room used by gamers?

Proximity chat Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a live chat tool used to enhance customer experience?

LiveChat Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of an email retention policy?

To define how long email messages should be retained Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary advantage of the development of Ethernet in 1976?

To allow for the creation of distributed packet switching for local area networks Signup and view all the answers

What was a major problem with the use of Electronic Document Management Systems (EDMS) in the 1980s?

The inability to access information when away from the office Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary purpose of the World Wide Web, created by Tim Berners-Lee in 1990?

To facilitate sharing and updating information among researchers Signup and view all the answers

What was the solution to the challenge of accessing EDMS when away from the office?

Downloading information to laptops and uploading files to EDMS Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary result of the development of virtual private networks (VPNs)?

Difficulty in using EDMS with VPNs Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of Jeff Bezos' business plan for Amazon.com in 1994?

It created a new business model that generated records through transactions Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the guidance provided by the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) in 2005?

To guide agencies in better managing web records Signup and view all the answers

What was the innovation introduced by Ray Tomlinson in 1971?

The invention of Internet-based e-mail Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary purpose of the MAILBOX system introduced at MIT in 1965?

To facilitate communication through e-mail Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the retention periods provided by the U.S. General Services Administration?

They distinguished between records and non-records on websites Signup and view all the answers

What was the name of the company founded by Hollerith that later became a prominent technology company?

International Business Machines (IBM) Signup and view all the answers

What was the purpose of the committee formed by Emmett Leahy in 1935?

To decide on the disposal of records without permanent value or historical interest Signup and view all the answers

What was the main challenge faced by the records management program initiated by the National Archives in 1937?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary purpose of the records lifecycle model developed by Leahy?

To segregate records of temporary value from those with archival value Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the recording machine installed under the Oval Office in 1940?

It was used to prevent the president from being misquoted Signup and view all the answers

What was the purpose of the Records Disposal Act of 1943?

To define records and authorize the systematic disposal of government records Signup and view all the answers

What was the amendment made to the Records Disposal Act in 1945?

To include the government-wide General Schedule (GS) Signup and view all the answers

What was the purpose of the General Schedule (GS) introduced in 1945?

To authorize the systematic disposal of government records Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the filing cabinet unveiled at the Columbian Exposition in 1893?

It was used to organize and store paperwork Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the State Library of Western Australia being authorized to accept official records in 1903?

It represented a shift towards state and national archives Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary difference between Web 1.0 and Web 2.0?

The authoritarian, closed, passive, static, one-way communication medium Signup and view all the answers

What is the main challenge posed by the use of personal devices to conduct business?

Records managers having to manage records created on personal devices Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of RSS feeds?

To deliver regularly changing web content directly to subscribers Signup and view all the answers

What is the main advantage of using text messaging for marketing and customer service?

Faster opening of messages compared to email Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between SMS and MMS?

SMS has a 160-character limit, while MMS does not Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary concern for records managers regarding ephemeral messages?

That they automatically disappear from the recipient's screen Signup and view all the answers

What is the main role of Web 2.0 tools in the workplace?

To facilitate communication, social networking, and web publishing Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary challenge for records managers with the introduction of social media into the workplace?

Managing records created using social media tools Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between Web 2.0 and traditional electronic systems?

Web 2.0 is more democratic, collaborative, active, dynamic, and interactive Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary concern surrounding tools like Snapchat?

Data privacy, data permanence, and data security Signup and view all the answers

What can be used to view snaps later?

Snapchat Memories Signup and view all the answers

What is the expected number of podcast listeners by the end of 2024?

504.9 billion Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between a podcast and a vodcast?

Video elements Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of blogs and microblogs?

Establishing communities of interest Signup and view all the answers

What is the percentage of websites hosted by WordPress.org?

42.9% Signup and view all the answers

What is the character limit for messages on X (formerly Twitter)?

280 characters Signup and view all the answers

What was the problem faced by NARA after former President Donald J. Trump's Twitter account was suspended?

Difficulty in retaining Presidential Records Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of Records Express, the official blog of the Chief Records Office at the National Archives?

Provide information about Federal records management policies and activities Signup and view all the answers

What is the key advantage of microblogs?

Short messages with images or infographics Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of a wiki?

To facilitate collaboration and knowledge sharing Signup and view all the answers

What type of mashup combines different data types from multiple sources and organizes the information through the browser interface?

Consumer mashup Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the wiki site that has been online since 2003 and is overseen by a team of administrators?

Wikitravel Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of mashups?

Combination, visualization, and aggregation Signup and view all the answers

Who is the most followed individual on Twitter, as of early 2023?

Elon Musk Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of enterprise wikis?

To facilitate collaboration and knowledge sharing Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a business mashup?

A mashup of a company's order management system with logistics information Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of data mashups?

To create reports or dashboards for business analysts Signup and view all the answers

What type of wiki is used by companies to link to products, articles, and other useful information for their audiences?

Pinterest Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of Governor Ron DeSantis' announcement of his 2024 presidential campaign?

To demonstrate the importance of social media in politics Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the Apple Vision Pro spatial audio system?

To enhance real-world experiences with virtual objects Signup and view all the answers

What is a key feature of videoconferencing platforms like Zoom?

The ability to record meetings Signup and view all the answers

What is the main advantage of cloud computing for businesses?

Reduced infrastructure costs Signup and view all the answers

What is a feature of the Microsoft 365 suite?

Records management and compliance features Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between Apple Vision Pro and other virtual reality headsets?

Its ability to allow users to see both virtual and real-world objects Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of Vimeo over YouTube for business use?

Deeper analytics and integration with marketing automation software Signup and view all the answers

What is a feature of Google Workspace?

Generative AI features for video production and editing Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the records retention schedule?

To ensure compliance with regulatory requirements Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of virtual office applications like Microsoft 365?

Remote access to information and applications Signup and view all the answers

What is a feature of videoconferencing platforms like Zoom?

AI-enabled meeting summarization Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of InetSoft's business intelligence platform?

To enable users to create and define their own data mashups Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of social networking platforms for leaders?

They make leaders appear approachable, accessible, honest, and trustworthy Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of folksonomies?

To allow users to define their own metadata collections Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of crowdsourcing?

To obtain needed knowledge, goods, or services from a body of people Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of virtual worlds?

They are web-based and allow simultaneous interaction among users Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of tagging and social bookmarking?

To create author-created and user-created metadata used for social tagging Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of using digital volunteers for transcription and review?

It saves staff time and resources Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of tools that facilitate web services?

To allow different software applications to interoperate Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary concern for records managers in the context of InetSoft's business intelligence platform?

Determining whether new records have been created and where they are stored Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary benefit of using word clouds?

They provide a visual representation of terms found in selected text Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Recordkeeping Throughout History

Early records of human life date back to drawings on cave walls, such as the depiction of three warty pigs hunted for food at least 45,500 years ago in the Indonesian island of Sulawesi.
By 4000 BCE, tokens were used as an accounting method to record animals, followed by the development of the cuneiform writing system by the Sumerians.
By 3200 BCE, hieroglyphics were developed in Egypt for commercial and religious purposes, documenting land holdings, crop yields, and taxes.

Recordkeeping in Ancient Civilizations

The Royal Archives of Ebla (modern Tell Mardikh, Syria) contained an estimated 20,000 clay tablets written in Sumerian script, dating from approximately 2250 BCE.
In Egypt, scrolls made of papyrus plant were used as a recording medium from approximately 3000 BCE.
Papyrus became a standard in Greece and Rome until circa 170 BCE when Egypt cut off its supply to Pergamum, leading to the production of parchment from sheepskin or goatskin.

Recordkeeping Development

In the second century CE, a papermaking process was developed in China, replacing papyrus in Europe by the ninth century.
The Gutenberg Bible, printed in 1456, revolutionized mass communication.
In the fourteenth century, the Lord Clerk Register was appointed in Scotland to assume responsibility for keeping the national archives.
In 1462, the Town Clerk of the City of London was appointed to assume responsibility for the safekeeping of the city corporation's records.

Recordkeeping in the Twentieth Century

In 1934, Congress established the National Archives to centralize federal recordkeeping in the United States.
In 1935, Emmett Leahy joined the National Archives and developed a records lifecycle model to control the creation, use, and disposition of records.
The Federal Records Act of 1950 codified records management policies and practices within the federal government.
In 1955, the first Guide to Records Retention Requirements was published.

Recordkeeping in the Information Age

In the 1960s, computers began to be used for data processing, with the first computer, ENIAC, developed in 1943.
The term "digital" was first used in 1938 to describe a computer that operates on data in the form of digits.
Electronic typewriters and word processing equipment emerged in the 1960s, increasing typing speeds and accelerating the growth of paper documents.
The evolution of computers and word processing led to the development of electronic records management and digital information storage.

Records Management and Information Technology

In 1987, the "PROFS case" resulted in courts finding that electronic versions of email records contained metadata not captured in paper records.
In 1994, the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) issued electronic mail regulations applicable to all Executive branch agencies.
In 1995, White House email was archived in electronic form.
Today, records management policies and procedures continue to evolve with emerging technology and increasing volumes of digital information.### Development of Data Storage
1971: IBM introduced the 8” floppy disk, a portable and reusable alternative to magnetic tape, with a storage capacity of 80 KB (about 40 pages of text).
In the 1970s, word processing systems used floppy disks that could store 80 to 100 pages of text and programs, marking the beginning of the convergence of word and data processing functions.

Electronic Records Management

1976: Ethernet was developed to provide distributed packet switching for local area networks (LANs), enabling organizations to encourage employees to file documents and spreadsheets electronically.
1980s: Electronic document management systems (EDMS) were introduced to store and manage information, but they had limitations such as inability to access information remotely.
1990s: The Internet and World Wide Web enabled external connectivity and made EDMS more accessible, leading to the development of wide area networks (WANs) and virtual private networks (VPNs).
1994: Jeff Bezos wrote a business plan for Amazon.com, introducing a new business model that relied on electronic records created through online transactions.

Communication Technologies

1965: A method was developed for facilitating communication, producing new records that needed to be identified, captured, and managed.
1971: Ray Tomlinson invented Internet-based email, introducing the @ symbol to specify user and computer names.
1974: Hundreds of military users began using email, and by the end of the 1970s, 75% of ARPANET traffic was email.
1997: AOL Instant Messenger (AIM) was launched, allowing direct peer-to-peer connections and text-based messaging.
2025: The total number of worldwide instant messaging (IM) accounts is expected to reach over 9.5 billion.

Online Chats and Chat Rooms

1990s: Online chat rooms enabled synchronous and asynchronous conversations, still used today by gamers, individuals seeking help, and businesses for customer support.
2000s: Live chat tools became popular for enhancing customer experience, and chatbots were introduced to generate leads, create help tickets, and chat across channels.

2004: Facebook was founded, followed by YouTube in 2005, marking the beginning of democratic, collaborative, and interactive online communication.
2007: The term "bring your own device" (BYOD) emerged, describing business acceptance of personal devices for work.
Web 2.0 tools include email, instant messaging, chat rooms, RSS, text messaging, audio and video messaging, blogs, microblogs, wikis, and mashups.

Records Management Challenges

Records managers faced challenges due to social media, cloud storage, and personal devices, making it essential to be aware of data privacy, data permanence, and data security concerns.
Ephemeral messages, such as those on Snapchat, raise questions about data retention and permanence.### Google My Business
Hosts can add property information, photos, and guest reviews to Google search results using Google My Business feature

Business Mashups

Combine organization's resources, applications, and data with external web services to improve customer service
Example: order management system with logistics information from UPS or FedEx for immediate access to order status and package tracking

Data Mashups

Combine similar media and information from disparate data sources to create reports or dashboards
Example: InetSoft's BI platform allows users to create and define their own data mashups with machine learning engine

Records Management

New records may be created through business mashups and data mashups, and must be stored and managed accordingly

Social networks allow users to share content, interact, and develop communities of interest
Examples: Facebook (3.049 million monthly active users), LinkedIn (990 million users in over 200 countries)
Leaders with personal profiles on social media appear approachable, accessible, honest, and trustworthy

Virtual Worlds

Characteristics: 3-D graphics, web-based access, simultaneous interaction among users, and representation of a persistent virtual world
Examples: Second Life (70 million registered accounts), The Sandbox (Ethereum-based virtual world)
Investment in virtual worlds creates new records that must be managed, such as accounting records and documentation of events

Social tagging and folksonomies allow users to create metadata for content
Example: hashtags on social media sites, word clouds (visual representations of terms found in selected text)

Crowdsourcing

Practice of obtaining needed knowledge, goods, or services from a body of people
Example: Smithsonian Institution's use of digital volunteers for transcription and review of historical documents

Web Services

Technical requirements allow different software applications to interoperate
Examples: augmented reality, videoconferencing, virtual office applications, cloud computing, video sharing, business process modeling

Augmented Reality

Technology that blurs the lines between the real world and the virtual world
Examples: Ikea Place app, Apple Vision Pro spatial audio system

Video Hosting

Services allow users to host and share videos
Examples: YouTube (2.70 billion active users), Vimeo, Wistia, Dailymotion
Considerations: target audience, analytics, and integration with marketing automation software

Videoconferencing Services

Allow people to meet in real-time from different geographic areas
Examples: Zoom, Microsoft Teams, GoToMeeting, WebEx
Features: recording meetings, AI features for summarizing meetings and creating action items

Virtual Office Applications

Allow employees to remotely access information and collaborate
Examples: Microsoft 365 (345 million paid users), Google Workspace (over 8 million paying business customers)
Features: document creation, file storage, team collaboration, and records management and compliance

Cloud Computing

Delivering hosted services over the internet as an alternative to local hardware and infrastructure
Definition by NIST: model for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources

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Description

Explore the evolution of recordkeeping practices from prehistoric times to the present day, highlighting the importance of documentation in human civilization.