Qualitative Research Steps and Perspectives

Qualitative Research Steps

• Define the research problem clearly.
• Establish a theoretical framework guiding the study.
• Formulate specific research questions.
• Select an appropriate research design (e.g., case study, phenomenology, grounded theory).
• Recruit participants purposefully.
• Conduct pilot studies and training where needed.
• Enter the research setting.
• Collect data using appropriate methods (interviews, observations, document analysis).
• Analyze collected data to identify patterns and themes.
• Report research findings.

Qualitative Research Perspectives

• Phenomenological: Understands how individuals experience the world.
• Symbolic Interactionism: Examines how shared meanings are created through interactions and symbols.
• Critical Theory: Critiques societal structures to address oppression and promote equality.

Key Social Theorists

• Max Weber: Emphasized understanding social life from the participants' perspectives, avoiding researcher bias.
• George Herbert Mead: Highlighted the role of interactions, gestures, and language in shaping individuals' understanding of the world.
• Karl Marx: Focused on critiquing and transforming society to address inequalities.

Qualitative Research Designs

• Case Studies: In-depth investigations of a specific individual or instance.
• Phenomenology: Studies participants' lived experiences.
• Grounded Theory: Develops theories based on collected data.
• Ethnography: Explores cultural practices and settings.
• Historical Analysis: Examines past events to understand present phenomena.
• Content Analysis: Analyzes written, spoken, or visual communication for patterns.
• Discourse Analysis: Examines language use within cultural contexts.
• Narrative Analysis: Examines how stories are told and their impact.
• Thematic Analysis: Identifies recurring themes and patterns within data.
• Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA): Focuses on individual, personal experiences.

Data Collection Methods

• Narrative: Continuous recording of observations in sentences.
• Tallying: Counting the frequency of specific behaviors.
• Interval Method: Recording behaviors at specific intervals.
• Duration Method: Measuring the duration of specific behaviors.
• Interviews: One-on-one conversations with participants.
• Observations: Systematic observation of behaviors.
• Document Analysis: Examining documents relevant to the study.

Data Analysis Methods

• Content Analysis: Identifies patterns in large datasets of written or visual content.
• Narrative Analysis: Analyzes how stories are told and structured.
• Thematic Analysis: Identifies recurring themes and patterns in data.
• Grounded Theory: Develops new theories grounded in data analysis.
• IPA: Analyzes individual, personal experiences in depth.

Key Criteria for Qualitative Research Evaluation

• Credibility (Internal Validity): Accurate description of subjects and settings.
• Transferability (External Validity): Applicability of findings to similar contexts.
• Dependability (Reliability): Clear documentation of the research process and changes.
• Confirmability (Objectivity): Verification by others based on an audit trail.

Reactivity in Qualitative Research

• Reactivity refers to participants altering their behavior due to awareness of being studied.
• Evaluation Apprehension: Participants' concern about being judged.
• Social Desirability: Participants' tendency to present desirable behaviors.
• Attention Regulation: Participants' altered behavior due to awareness of being observed.

Enhancing Trustworthiness in Qualitative Research

• Minimize reactivity (e.g. through hidden observations or concealment).
• Verify data consistency across observers and over time.
• Employ multiple data collection techniques.
• Prioritize contextual details and authentic representation of participants' perspectives.
• Consider ecological validity to ensure the study setting is relevant.

Data Collection Methods in Surveys

• Web-based surveys: Easy and inexpensive.
• Mail surveys: Flexible for respondents but low response rates.
• Interviews (personal, phone, focus group): Detailed data, potential for interviewer bias.

Survey Design

• Descriptive designs: Document group characteristics.
• Analytical designs: Analyze relationships between variables.
• Closed-ended questions: Fixed answers (e.g., multiple choice).
• Open-ended questions: Free-response format.

Survey Scales and Rating Errors

• Likert scale: Measures attitudes along a continuum.
• Semantic differential scale: Captures subjective feelings.
• Rating errors: Leniency, central tendency, halo effect, proximity errors, observer bias.

Telephone Interviews

• Advantages: Cost-effective, fast, broad geographical reach.
• Disadvantages: Limited use of visual aids, potential for lack of motivation.

Personal Interviews

• Advantages: Flexibility, in-depth probing, higher response rates, observation of non-verbal cues.
• Disadvantages: Expensive and time-consuming, potential for interviewer bias.

Focus Group Discussions

• Advantages: Stimulates group discussions, gathers diverse perspectives.
• Disadvantages: Difficult to control discussions, potential for participant dominance.

Delphi Technique

• Advantages: Reaches consensus through iterative feedback.
• Disadvantages: Time-consuming, potential for bias in feedback.

Mixed Methods Research

• Concurrently and Sequentially (implementation sequence): Quantitative and qualitative data collection together or separately.
• Benefits: Balances strengths of both methods.
• Limitations: Complex, requires careful planning and analysis, resource-intensive.

Participatory Action Research (PAR)

• Focus: Co-generating knowledge with participants for practical outcomes and positive social change.
• Phases: Setting the question, building trust, data collection, analysis, and communication.
• Challenges: Building relationships, ensuring collaboration, identifying appropriate actions.

Knowledge Translation

• Goal: Translating research findings into practical application.
• Importance: Closing the evidence-to-practice gap and ensuring research changes practice.
• Barriers: Lack of time, resources, or access to research, difficulty finding and utilizing available evidence.

This quiz covers the essential steps and perspectives in qualitative research, including how to define a research problem, establish a theoretical framework, and analyze data. It also discusses key social theories and theorists fundamental to understanding qualitative methodology. Test your knowledge about these critical components of qualitative research.