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• The Early Modern English period lasted from approximately 1400-1700
• The pronunciation of final -e in words like name was dropped, but it affected the previous vowel
• The "gh" sound in words like night and laugh became /f/ in some words

Changes in Early Modern English

• Many words beginning with kn- (e.g., knight) changed by dropping the initial /k/ sound
• Middle English /o:/ transformed into Modern English /u:/, as in the word boot
• The 'r' sound became silent or reduced in some English dialects
• Consonants were often dropped in Early Modern English
• Unstressed syllables became shorter or reduced to schwa (/ə/)
• The pronunciation of words like love and move changed; the vowel sound was shortened

Consonant Simplification

• The loss of /k/ in know serves as an example

Pronunciation Changes

• The word busy, pronounced with a /u:/ sound in Middle English, shifted to /ɪ/ (bɪzi)
• Long vowels shifted upwards in pronunciation

Phonetic Changes

• Some words changed in pronunciation due to Early Modern English phonetic changes
• The /r/ sound became silent in words like far and car in some dialects

Spelling vs Pronunciation

• Spelling remained largely unchanged due to the introduction of the printing press

Vowel Shifts

• One effect of the Early Modern English vowel shift is on modern pronunciation
• The word tune, with a long /u:/ in Middle English, changed to /ju:/ (tju:n)
• Vowel changes rendered older rhymes ineffective in modern English

Consonant Sounds and Standardization

• Consonants were often silent in Early Modern English
• The invention of the printing press contributed to phonetic standardization

Middle English Development

• The Norman Conquest in 1066 significantly influenced the development of Middle English
• Middle English was spoken approximately between 1066–1500

Vocabulary and Inflection

• The primary influence on Middle English vocabulary came from French
• Old English inflectional endings disappeared during the Middle English period

Dialects and Phonetics

• The East Midlands dialect of Middle English later developed into Standard English
• A major phonetic change in Middle English was the loss of final unstressed vowels
• Word order in Middle English became more rigid and dependent on word order

Influential Authors and Sound Changes

• Geoffrey Chaucer significantly influenced English literature
• The Middle English sound þ (thorn), representing th, was later replaced by Th
• The word "knight" was pronounced as /knıxt/
• Middle English saw an increase in loanwords from French

Vowel Pronunciation and Grammatical Endings

• Many unstressed vowels were pronounced as /ə/ in Middle English
• By the end of Middle English, the -es ending indicated plural nouns
• Verb conjugation in Middle English was simplified
• Middle English spelling was largely phonetic and inconsistent

Transition to Early Modern English

• 1400-1600 marks the transition to Early Modern English
• The loss of silent letters in words like knight and gnaw exemplifies consonant simplification
• The pronunciation of final -e in Middle English words such as name was lost in most cases

The Great Vowel Shift

• The Early Modern English period was significantly shaped by the Great Vowel Shift
• The Great Vowel Shift primarily affected long vowels, occurring between 1400-1600
• In the vowel shift, /i:/ changed from /i:/ to /ai/
• The Great Vowel Shift made English phonetically more difficult to read, similar to Germanic languages
• The word "bite" (Middle English: /bi:tə/) became /bait/ due to the Great Vowel Shift

Grammar

• Dual pronouns were lost in Middle English compared to Old English
• Old English grammatical gender was replaced by natural gender
• Accusative and Dative case distinctions were greatly reduced from Old English
• Old English strong and weak verb distinctions became more regular
• Middle English plurals typically formed by adding -es, replacing Old English inflections
• The use of do-support in questions and negatives is a Middle English grammatical innovation

Scientific Writing

• Objectivity and precision are key stylistic features of scientific writing
• Scientific writing primarily focuses on clarity and logical argumentation
• The passive voice is commonly used
• The passive voice emphasizes the action rather than the performer
• Scientific language is generally formal and precise
• Ambiguity and vagueness are not features of scientific writing Increasing objectivity and clarity is the purpose of technical terminology in scientific writing
• Precision is vital to ensure accuracy and prevent misinterpretation

Pronouns, Citations and References in Scientific Writing

• The pronoun "I" is least commonly used
• Citations and references provide credibility and acknowledge sources
• Subjectivity and bias are avoided
• A well-written scientific paper includes clear structure and logical argumentation

Publicistic Style

• The main purpose of publicistic style is to inform, influence, and persuade the public
• Expressiveness and emotional appeal characterize it
• Publicistic style is commonly found in political speeches, newspapers, and essays
• A mix of short and complex sentences are often used

Rhetoric in Publicistic Style

• Rhetorical questions engage the audience and provoke thought
• An impersonal and detached tone is not a typical feature
• Publicistic writing is characterized by subjectivity and the author's attitude
• Metaphors, similes, and allusions are frequently used

Political Speeches and Repetition

• The primary function of publicistic style in political speeches is to persuade and mobilize people
• Repetition is used to emphasize key ideas and create a strong impact

Figurative Language and Style

• Figurative language makes the text more emotional and memorable
• Publicistic style is more expressive and emotional, while scientific styles are not
• An editorial in publicistic style is an opinion-based article in a newspaper
• Direct address to the audience is often used to engage the reader and make the message personal

Pathos, Logos and Tone

• Pathos in publicistic writing corresponds to emotional appeal to the audience
• Logos is the use of logical arguments and facts
• Persuasive and engaging tone is most common

Newspaper Articles and Headlines

• Newspaper articles often start with the most important information to keep readers engaged and informed quickly
• Headlines provide a clear, concise summary of the article's message
• Publicistic style relies on emotional and logical appeals the most

Official Style

• Official style's primary function in communication is to convey information in a structured manner
• Clarity, precision, and standardization are characteristics of official style
• Government documents, legal texts, and business communication commonly employ it
• The tone is objective, formal, and impersonal
• Passive voice is common as it emphasizes the action rather than the doer
• A cliché often found in official style is "In accordance with the rules"

Ambiguity, Precision, and Redundancy

• Official documents avoid ambiguous expressions so they are clear and legally precise
• "It is absolutely essential to comply with the stated requirements" exemplifies bureaucratic redundancy
• Standardized vocabulary is important to ensure clarity and avoid misinterpretation

Clichés and Phrases in Official Language

• A common cliché in official language is "At this moment in time"
• Excessive clichés can make writing vague and overly formal
• "The undersigned party hereby agrees to the following terms" is an example of official style used in legal and business documents"
• Long, complex sentences are used to increase accuracy and precision

Avoiding Doubt, Formal Connectors, and Clarity

• "For the avoidance of doubt" in legal documents is a redundancy that reinforces clarity
• Formal connectors ensure logical flow
• "Pursuant to the agreement signed on January 1, 2023..." is official phrasing
• Clichés are avoided as they lack precision and clarity
• Direct and clear language is preferred to avoid confusion and misinterpretation

Adverbs and Sentence Basics

• An adverb's function to modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs
• "She has three notebooks" contains a cardinal numeral
• In "that was an amazing performance," "that" is the demonstrative pronoun
• "They always arrive on time" uses an adverb of frequency

Pronouns and Numerals

• Someone is an indefinite pronoun
• Pronouns indicate quantity/order
• "She won the second prize" correctly uses an ordinal numeral
• "Whose bag is this?" uses an interrogative pronoun
• "He runs quick" incorrectly uses an adverb

Adverbs, Syntax and Sentences

• "Quickly" is an adverb of manner
• Syntax studies the structure and arrangement of words in sentences
• Interrogative sentences express a question
• "Close the door, please" exemplifies an imperative sentence
• A simple sentence consists of one independent clause

Compound and Complex Sentences

• A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses
• A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one dependent clause
• Conjunctions commonly join independent clauses in a compound sentence
• "And" does this
• "Although it was raining, they went for a walk" is a complex sentence
• "Although she was tired, she finished her work, and she went to bed early" is compound-complex

Punctuation

• A comma with a coordinating conjunction separates independent clauses in a compound sentence

Grimm's Law

• Grimm's Law describes the systematic sound shift of Indo-European stop consonants in Proto-Germanic
• Proto-Indo-European voiceless stops p, t, k turned into f, þ (th), h in Proto-Germanic
• Verner's Law explains Germanic voiceless fricatives' voicing based on stress in Proto-Indo-European
• S → z when following an unstressed vowel illustrates Verner's Law
• Latin "pater" → Old English "fæder" exemplifies a consonant shift from Grimm's Law

Verner's vs. Grimm's Law

• Grimm's Law describes the initial Germanic sound shift
• Verner's Law explains exceptions due to stress
• Gothic preserves Verner's Law effects
• Consonants affected by Verner's Law undergo voicing when preceded by an unstressed syllable
• Þ → d sound shifts are attributed to Verner's Law rather than Grimm's

Verner's Law and Old English Verbs

• Verner's Law explains irregularities in Grimm's Law application, accounting for stress-dependent consonant changes
• Strong verbs use vowel gradation (ablaut) to form past tense
• Seven classes of strong verbs existed in Old English
• "Drifan" (to drive) is an Old English strong verb
• Infinitive – past singular – past plural – past participle is the principal parts of an Old English strong verb

Weak Verbs in Old English

• Weak verbs form the past tense by adding a dental suffix (-d, -t, -ed)
• Three classes of weak verbs existed in Old English
• "Deman" (to judge) is an Old English weak verb
• Class 1 weak verbs have a short stem vowel, while Class 2 has a long vowel or diphthong

Verbal Categories in Old English

• Conjugation marks distinctions in person and number
• The Old English tense system had only present and past
• Vowel alternation (ablaut) indicates tense changes in strong verbs

Strong vs. Weak Verbs

• "Ridan" (to ride) belongs to the first class of strong verbs
• Class II weak verbs form the past tense with -ode
• The four principal parts of a strong verb in Old English are infinitive – past singular – past plural – past participle
• "Willan" (to want) and "beon" (to be) distinction determined by modality

Weak Verbs and Tenses

• Class III weak verbs have a past tense formation with -de or -te
• Old English finite verb conjugation only had present and past tense forms
• Mood marks indicative, subjunctive, and imperative distinctions

Vowel Alternation

• "Singan" (to sing) underwent the most significant vowel alternations (ablaut)
• Weak verbs originated from derived verbs with suffixal inflection rather than root modification

Theoretical Grammar

• Theoretical grammar primarily studies the structure and system of a language
• Syntax focuses on sentence structure
• Morphology deals with the internal structure of words
• Phonetics is not a component of theoretical grammar

Prescriptive Grammar

• Prescriptive grammar explains how language should be used
• A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a language

Universal Grammar

• Universal Grammar argues that grammar is innate in humans
• Noam Chomsky is associated with Transformational-Generative Grammar
• To describe the structure and rules of language is the main goal of theoretical grammar

Word Formation and Morphology

• Morphology deals at the linguistic level
• A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning
• There are 3 morphemes in the word "unhappiness"
• "Happy" is a free morpheme

Bound Morphemes and Word Structure

• A bound morpheme is a suffix or prefix that must attach to another word
• Morphology studies word structure

Grammatical Categories

• The grammatical category of number refers to singular and plural forms
• “-ed” is an inflectional morpheme
• Derivational morphemes serve to form a new word
• Grammatical category “case” belongs to nouns and pronouns

Morphemes, Nouns, and Adjectives

• "Nationalization" contains 4 morphemes
• "Happiness" is an abstract noun
• "Doctor" is a common noun
• "Good" is an example of adjective irregular in the degree for comparison

Comparative and Superlative Forms

• "Less" is the comparative form of "little"
• "Best" is a superlative adjective
• The plural of "child" is "children"
• The plural of "sheep" is "sheep"

Superlative Adjectives and Verbs

• "This is the best book I've ever read" correctly uses a superlative adjective
• A verb expresses action or state
• "Seem" is a linking verb

Verb Tenses and Auxiliary Verbs

• "Went" is the past tense of "go"
• "Writing" is the present participle of "write"
• "Have" is an auxiliary verb
• "She will travel tomorrow" is in the future tense

Nouns and Proper Nouns

• "Table" is a common noun
• "Happiness" is an abstract noun
• "Chair" is a countable noun
• "Information" is an uncountable noun

Plural Nouns

• The plural of "child" is "children"
• The plural of "sheep" is "sheep"
• "London" is a proper noun
• "Team" is a collective noun
• "Apple" is a singular noun
• "Gold" is a material noun

Adjectives

• The function of an adjective
• An adjective describes a noun
• "Beautiful" is an adjective in "The sky is blue"
• The adjective in "The small dog barked loudly" is "Small"

Adjectives Describing Size and Correct Order of Degrees

• "Tall" is an adjective that describes size
• "Faster" is the comparative form of "fast"
• "Most beautiful" is the superlative form of "beautiful"
• "Good" has an irregular comparative form
• The correct order of degrees of comparison for "happy" is Happy, happier, happiest
• "This is the best book I've ever read" correctly uses the superlative degree