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• Computer organization encompasses physical aspects of computer systems like circuit design, control signals, and memory types, answering "How does a computer work?".
• Computer architecture involves logical aspects of system implementation seen by the programmer, such as instruction sets and addressing modes, addressing "How do I design a computer?".
• The Principle of Equivalence states any task done by software can be done using hardware, and vice versa.
• A computer consists of a processor, memory, and a mechanism for transferring data to and from the outside world.
• Millisecond = 1/1000 of a second; hard drive access times = 10 to 20 milliseconds.
• Nanosecond = 1/1,000,000,000 of a second; main memory access times = 50 to 70 nanoseconds.
• Micron (micrometer) = 1/1,000,000 of a meter; circuits on computer chips are measured in microns.
• IEEE promotes the interests of the worldwide electrical engineering community and establishes standards for computer components.
• ITU addresses the interoperability of telecommunications systems, including data communications.
• ANSI is the American National Standards Institute.
• BSI is the British Standards Institution.
• ISO establishes worldwide standards for everything from screw threads to photographic film and is influential in shaping computer hardware/software standards.

Historical Development

• Computer development has progressed through generations.
• Moore's Law and Rock's Law are relevant concepts.
• The computer level hierarchy consists of 7 levels (6-0).
• The von Neumann model is a key concept.
• Non-von Neumann models include Harvard architecture and parallel processing.
• Multicore processors have multiple processor cores on a single die.
• Dual-processor systems use two processors each plugged into the motherboard separately.

Chapter 2 Topics

• Covers bits, bytes, words, nibbles, and radix.
• Discusses decimal to binary conversions and binary to hexadecimal relationships.
• Addresses carry versus overflow in arithmetic operations.
• Explores signed versus unsigned numbers and signed integer representations, including signed magnitude and complements.
• Introduces Excess-M representation.
• Focuses on binary arithmetic and floating-point representation.
• The IEEE-754 single-precision floating-point standard uses an 8-bit exponent (with a bias of 127) and a 23-bit significand.
• The IEEE-754 double-precision standard uses an 11-bit exponent (with a bias of 1023) and a 52-bit significand.
• Floating-point representation is finite, leading to approximations of real numbers.
• Character representation includes BCD, EBCDIC, ASCII, and Unicode.
• Error detection/correction is crucial due to imperfections in data recording/transmission.
• Checksums verify file integrity.
• Cyclic redundancy checking (CRC) codes detect errors for large data blocks.
• Hamming code is a method for error detection and correction in transmitted/stored data using parity bits.
• Reed-Soloman codes are used.

Chapter 3: Boolean Algebra

• Boolean algebra is a mathematical system that manipulates variables that can have one of two values, true or false.
• Common Boolean operators include AND, OR, and NOT, and truth tables are essential.
• NAND and NOR gates are universal gates.
• Kmaps are a graphical representation of Boolean expressions used to simplify them, leading to simpler circuits.
• A combinational logic circuit's output is based only on current inputs, without memory.
• Combinational logic circuits are built with logic gates.
• Decoders convert encoded binary inputs into distinct output signals and activates the output line (coded message).
• Multiplexers chooses one of multiple inputs and sends it to a single output and it is also known as a data selector.
• Multiplexers allow sharing of input signals and transmission lines, increasing data transmission rates.
• State is the system's condition at a given time, including defining data.
• The biggest issue for multiplexers is lack of memory or storage.
• Sequential circuits have state and storage elements.
• Synchronous sequential circuits use a clock.
• State changes occur in sequential circuits only when the clock ticks, on the edge or level and rely on feedback.
• Race conditions can lead to undefined states.
• The D Flip Flop is the building block shift register, by cascading eight D Flip Flops in sequence, a byte (8-bits) of information can be stored after 8 clock cycles.
• Finite state machines are models for systems with a limited number of conditional states and include input events, output events, and system states.
• ASM (Algorithmic State Machine) manages complex system behaviors in a structured way, improving maintainability.
• Embedded systems are small computers in larger devices.
• Embedded systems require special programming.
• Consumer electronics, industrial machines, medical devices, automotive systems, and home security systems are all examples of embedded systems.