Psychology Unit 3: Development & Learning

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Questions and Answers

Which parenting style is characterized by high demands but low responsiveness?

  • Authoritarian (correct)
  • Permissive
  • Authoritative
  • Secure

A child whose parents set limits and enforce rules, but also listen to their opinions, is most likely experiencing which style of parenting?

  • Permissive
  • Disorganized
  • Authoritative (correct)
  • Authoritarian

Which of the following best describes permissive parenting?

  • High demands and high responsiveness.
  • High demands and low responsiveness
  • Low demands and high responsiveness. (correct)
  • Low demands and low responsiveness

Which attachment style is characterized by trust and a lack of concern about being abandoned?

<p>Secure (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A person who is fearful of abandonment and feels that their needs might not be met in a relationship likely has which style of attachment?

<p>Anxious (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term refers to the socially influenced traits that define what is considered male or female?

<p>Gender (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which attachment style is often associated with difficulty trusting others?

<p>Avoidant (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which attachment style might present with inconsistent and unclear behaviors?

<p>Disorganized (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process describes how individuals acquire the norms, rules, and knowledge of a society?

<p>Socialization (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who is known for their work on the stages of cognitive development in children?

<p>Jean Piaget (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What patterns of interaction and behavior are defined by different ways of relating to others?

<p>Attachment styles (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what stage of cognitive development, according to Piaget's theory, do infants primarily learn through their senses and motor skills?

<p>Sensorimotor Stage (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive milestone is achieved when a child understands that objects continue to exist even when they aren't visible?

<p>Object Permanence (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which of Piaget's stages does a child learn to use language but struggles with logical operations?

<p>Preoperational Stage (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory, what system includes the effects of time on a child's development?

<p>Chronosystem (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the correct term for a parenting style that combines high expectations with low nurturance?

<p>Authoritarian Parenting (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes an individual's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity?

<p>Temperament (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term refers to the distress an infant experiences when separated from primary caregivers whom they have become attached to?

<p>Separation anxiety (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the physical and emotional comfort an infant gains from physical contact with its mother?

<p>Contact comfort (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Children playing side-by-side but not interacting directly is defined as what type of play?

<p>Parallel play (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of play involves imaginary people and scenarios?

<p>Pretend play (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What concept describes the inability to recognize that others have different perspectives and feelings than oneself?

<p>Egocentrism (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for an adolescent's belief that they are constantly the focus of attention from others?

<p>Imaginary audience (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What concept is characterized by an adolescent's belief that they are unique and invulnerable to harm?

<p>Personal fable (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the process of becoming less responsive to a repeated stimulus?

<p>Habituation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the reappearance of an extinguished response after a pause?

<p>Spontaneous Recovery (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In classical conditioning, what is the role of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?

<p>It naturally triggers a response without prior learning. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does stimulus generalization refer to?

<p>The tendency for the conditioned stimulus to evoke similar responses. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the concept of counterconditioning?

<p>Using conditioning to change responses to certain triggers. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of learning involves making connections between events?

<p>Associative Learning (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the best description of 'biological preparedness' in learning?

<p>The inclination to form associations between stimuli and responses because of our evolutionary history. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which learning process focuses on rewards and punishments?

<p>Operant Conditioning (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary age range associated with the developmental stage of emerging adulthood?

<p>18 to 25 years (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Erikson's theory, what is the first psychosocial stage focusing on?

<p>Developing a sense of trust versus mistrust (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which of Erikson's stages does a child learn to be independent or experience shame and doubt?

<p>Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the core conflict that defines the 'Trust vs. Mistrust' stage in Erikson's theory?

<p>The conflict between faith in the world and lack of faith in the world (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following stages comes directly after the 'Trust vs. Mistrust' stage in Erikson's theory?

<p>Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If an infant consistently has their needs unmet, according to Erikson, what is a likely outcome?

<p>A sense of mistrust (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of the 'Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt' stage?

<p>Developing a sense of self-sufficiency (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which developmental concept specifically focuses on the transition period between adolescence and adulthood, rather than the stages within childhood?

<p>Emerging Adulthood (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Erikson, what is the primary focus of the 'Integrity vs. Despair' stage of psychosocial development?

<p>Reflecting on one's life and evaluating its meaning. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of 'Diffusion' in the context of adolescent identity development?

<p>Being undecided and disinterested in exploring different choices. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'Achievement' refer to in the context of adolescent identity development?

<p>The successful integration of self-concept based on exploration. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is considered an Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE)?

<p>Experiencing violence, abuse, or neglect during childhood. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Erikson's theory, which stage of life corresponds to the 'Integrity vs. Despair' psychosocial crisis?

<p>Old age. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which developmental outcome is LEAST likely to result from experiencing multiple Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)?

<p>Greater capacity for healthy intimate relationships. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

An adolescent who is undecided about their career and political views, and shows no interest in exploring these, is most likely in which identity status?

<p>Diffusion. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the core difference between 'Diffusion' and 'Moratorium' in identity development?

<p>Diffusion is characterized by a lack of exploration and commitment, while Moratorium involves exploration. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe the process of pairing two stimuli together to elicit a response?

<p>Classical Conditioning (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is the best example of a conditioned stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning?

<p>A bell that is rung just before food is presented (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What principle explains why, after repeated exposure, we tend to become less responsive to a stimulus?

<p>Habituation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between 'stimulus generalization' and 'stimulus discrimination' in classical conditioning?

<p>Stimulus generalization refers to a conditioned response being evoked by similar stimuli, while stimulus discrimination involves the ability to distinguish between stimuli. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of a counterconditioning technique?

<p>Using relaxation techniques to overcome a fear of spiders (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind 'biological preparedness' in learning?

<p>Some associations are easier to learn than others due to evolutionary factors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

<p>Classical conditioning focuses on involuntary responses, while operant conditioning involves voluntary behaviors. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the core principle behind operant conditioning?

<p>Behaviors are learned through consequences. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What describes the identity development status where an individual has made commitments without experiencing a crisis?

<p>Foreclosure (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which identity development status is an individual actively experiencing a crisis but lacks clear commitments?

<p>Moratorium (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of identity relates to an individual's connection to their racial or ethnic group?

<p>Racial/Ethnic Identity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is Sexual Orientation defined?

<p>Attraction to other people (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term refers to a person's identification with and sense of belonging to a religious group?

<p>Religious Identity (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is described as the part of an individual's identity formed by familial relationships?

<p>Familial Identity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What represents an individual's sense of self in relation to their career choices?

<p>Occupational Identity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following identity statuses typically involves having no clear commitments as well as experiencing a crisis?

<p>Moratorium (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Law of Effect state about behaviors?

<p>Behaviors with favorable consequences are repeated. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of reinforcement is characterized by an innate ability to satisfy biological needs?

<p>Primary Reinforcers (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does punishment do in behavioral terms?

<p>Decreases the behavior it follows. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines gross motor coordination?

<p>Large, general movements like walking. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process describes the tendency to revert to instinctive behaviors?

<p>Instinctive Drift (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the definition of maturation in developmental psychology?

<p>Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the rooting reflex in infants?

<p>A tendency to turn toward touch and search for a nipple. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which device is used to test depth perception in infants?

<p>Visual Cliff (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main achievement expected during the 'Industry vs. Inferiority' stage of psychosocial development?

<p>Coping with social and academic demands (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which stage of Erikson's psychosocial development occurs during adolescence?

<p>Identity vs. Role Confusion (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of the 'Integrity vs. Despair' stage in Erikson's psychosocial development?

<p>Reflecting on life choices (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

At what age range does the 'Intimacy vs. Isolation' stage occur according to Erikson?

<p>19 to 40 years (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the 'Achievement' status in adolescent identity development?

<p>Successful integration of personal values and roles (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary conflict faced during the 'Generativity vs. Stagnation' stage?

<p>Creating a legacy and contributing to society (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is indicated by the 'Diffusion' status in identity development?

<p>Indecision and lack of interest in identity (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What developmental task is related to the 'Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt' stage?

<p>Achieving independence and self-control (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What significant outcome can result from successfully navigating the 'Identity vs. Role Confusion' stage?

<p>Sense of personal identity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of events are classified as Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)?

<p>Experiencing neglect or witnessing violence (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which stage of Erikson's psychosocial development focuses on young children learning to control their environment?

<p>Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which stage of psychosocial development does Erikson claim individuals establish careers and begin families?

<p>Generativity vs. Stagnation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic feature of individuals experiencing Diffusion in their identity development?

<p>Indecision regarding identity and values (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which stage do individuals primarily seek to achieve a sense of competence through social and academic challenges?

<p>Industry vs. Inferiority (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which outcome is least likely to result from experiencing multiple Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)?

<p>Strong social relationships in adulthood (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During which life stage do individuals primarily reflect on their past according to Erikson's theory?

<p>Old age (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes a child's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity?

<p>Temperament (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which concept describes the distress infants experience due to separation from their primary caregivers?

<p>Separation Anxiety (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the comfort an infant receives from physical contact with its mother?

<p>Contact Comfort (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term best describes children playing side by side without interaction?

<p>Parallel Play (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the inability to understand that others have different feelings and perspectives?

<p>Egocentrism (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What concept explains an adolescent's belief that they are the center of attention and others are focused on them?

<p>Imaginary Audience (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term refers to an adolescent's belief in their uniqueness and invulnerability to harm?

<p>Personal Fable (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'Social Clock' refer to?

<p>The culturally accepted timing of life events (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the behavioral perspective's emphasis in explaining human behavior?

<p>Learning and behavior, including thoughts, feelings, and actions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is associative learning?

<p>Making connections between events to learn.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens during habituation?

<p>Becoming less responsive to a repeated stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the defining characteristic of classical conditioning?

<p>Pairing two stimuli to elicit a response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the difference between an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and a conditioned stimulus (CS).

<p>An UCS naturally triggers a response without learning, while a CS is initially neutral but becomes associated with a response after learning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during acquisition in classical conditioning?

<p>The initial learning stage where a response is established.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does extinction work in classical conditioning?

<p>Extinction is the diminishing of a conditioned response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is spontaneous recovery?

<p>The reappearance of a previously extinguished response after a pause.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is stimulus discrimination?

<p>The ability to differentiate between stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is stimulus generalization?

<p>Conditioned stimulus evokes similar responses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain how higher-order conditioning works.

<p>It involves pairing a new stimulus with a conditioned stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the goal of counterconditioning?

<p>To change responses to triggers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe taste aversion.

<p>Avoidance of food associated with discomfort.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a unique feature of one-trial conditioning?

<p>Learning occurs with only one pairing of the stimulus and response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is biological preparedness?

<p>The inclination to form associations between stimuli and responses.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is operant conditioning?

<p>Learning through rewards and punishments.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Law of Effect?

<p>Behaviors with favorable consequences are repeated.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does reinforcement work?

<p>It strengthens behavior that follows.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe primary reinforcers.

<p>They are innately reinforcing stimuli that satisfy biological needs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do secondary reinforcers gain their reinforcing power?

<p>Through association.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of punishment?

<p>It decreases behavior that follows.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does shaping involve?

<p>The positive reinforcement of behavior patterns.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is instinctive drift?

<p>The tendency to revert to instinctive behaviors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is fine motor coordination?

<p>The ability to make small, precise movements, typically involving coordination of the hands and fingers with the eyes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the relationship between maturation and behavior.

<p>Maturation is the process of biological development that is relatively unaffected by prior experiences. These processes create changes in behavior as the individual grows.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How are reflexes related to sensory stimuli?

<p>Reflexes are automatic responses to sensory stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the rooting reflex in infants.

<p>An infant will turn their head and open their mouth when their cheek is touched. This reflex helps the baby find the nipple to feed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the visual cliff?

<p>It is used to test depth perception in infants and young animals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define critical periods in human development.

<p>These are specific time periods during which an organism must experience certain stimuli to develop normally.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes sensitive periods in development?

<p>Those are times when an individual is more open to particular kinds of experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is imprinting?

<p>The formation of strong attachments during early life by certain animals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a growth spurt?

<p>A rapid increase in growth during puberty.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define puberty.

<p>The period of sexual maturation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are primary sex characteristics?

<p>The body structures that make sexual reproduction possible.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are secondary sex characteristics?

<p>Nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice change, and body hair.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is menarche?

<p>The first menstrual period.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines menopause?

<p>The time of natural cessation of menstruation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is sex defined?

<p>The biological characteristics by which people define males and females.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the characteristics of gender differ from sex?

<p>Gender is the socially influenced characteristics by which people define men and women.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the essential process of socialization.

<p>It is the process by which individuals learn the norms, rules, and information of a culture or society.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Jean Piaget known for?

<p>His study of cognitive development in children.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the sensorimotor stage of cognitive development.

<p>This stage occurs from birth to about two years of age, where infants learn about the world through their sensory impressions and motor activities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concept of object permanence.

<p>This is the awareness that objects continue to exist even when they're not perceived.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the preoperational stage of cognitive development?

<p>This is the second stage, from about 2 to 7 years of age, during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend concrete logic.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define mental symbols.

<p>They are internal depictions of information that the mind can manipulate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the chronosystem encompass in Bronfenbrenner's theory?

<p>Changes over time in child development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does authoritarian parenting style differ from authoritative parenting?

<p>Authoritarian parenting style is characterized by high demands and low responsiveness to the child. Authoritative parenting style combines high demands with high responsiveness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the permissive parenting style.

<p>Low demands with high responsiveness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines attachment styles?

<p>Patterns of attachment are defined by different ways of interacting and behaving in relationships.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the defining characteristics of a secure attachment?

<p>A secure attachment is characterized by trust, a lack of concern with being abandoned, and the feeling that you are well-liked.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the characteristics of insecure attachments?

<p>Insecure attachments are characterized by fear of abandonment, a feeling that one's needs might not be met, and difficulty in learning to trust others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the core characteristic of an avoidant attachment?

<p>It is characterized by difficulty in learning to trust other people.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the defining characteristic of an anxious attachment?

<p>Anxious attachments are characterized by concern about the stability of relationships.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the hallmark characteristic of a disorganized attachment?

<p>This attachment style is characterized by a lack of clear attachment behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is temperament?

<p>It refers to the characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity of a person.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is separation anxiety?

<p>It is characterized by emotional distress experienced by many infants when they are separated from those they are attached to.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is contact comfort?

<p>The physical and emotional comfort an infant receives from being in physical contact with their mother.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define parallel play.

<p>Children play side-by-side without interacting with each other.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is pretend play?

<p>A type of play that involves imaginary people and situations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is egocentrism?

<p>The inability to differentiate between one's own perspective and the perspectives of others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the imaginary audience?

<p>A concept that is used in adolescent psychology. It refers to the belief that an individual's actions are the main focus of others' attention.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define the personal fable.

<p>It is an adolescent's belief that they are unique and protected from harm.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the social clock?

<p>The culturally preferred timing of social events, such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe emerging adulthood.

<p>It encompasses the period between adolescence and full-fledged adulthood, generally between the ages of 18 and 25.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain Erik Erikson's stage theory of psychosocial development.

<p>Erikson's theory identifies eight stages that a person passes through, from infancy to late adulthood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the central challenge of the trust vs. mistrust stage?

<p>The infant learns whether or not they can trust the world to meet their needs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key challenge during Erikson's autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage?

<p>A child learns to be independent and confident or experiences shame and doubt about their abilities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main challenge during the initiative vs. guilt stage?

<p>Children begin to assert control and power over their environment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the central conflict of the industry vs. inferiority stage?

<p>Children learn to cope with new social and academic demands and develop a sense of competence or experience feelings of inferiority.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the core challenge during the identity vs. role confusion stage?

<p>Adolescents explore their independence, develop a sense of self, and potentially experience a crisis as they find a sense of identity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the central conflict of the intimacy vs. isolation stage?

<p>Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the defining conflict of the generativity vs. stagnation stage?

<p>Individuals establish careers, settle down within their relationships, begin families, and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the central conflict of the integrity vs. despair stage?

<p>Individuals reflect back on their life and develop a sense of integrity or despair.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)?

<p>They are traumatic events such as violence, abuse, or neglect, that occur in childhood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the meaning of achievement in adolescent development?

<p>It is the successful integration of different aspects of self-concept, including roles, values, and beliefs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the stage of diffusion in adolescent development.

<p>This is characterized by the lack of an established identity and the lack of commitment to exploring or making choices.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the stage of foreclosure in adolescent development.

<p>Individuals make commitments without exploring alternatives, such as committing to roles or values without exploring other options.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the moratorium stage?

<p>An individual is in the midst of a crisis or exploration where commitments are absent, not established, or vaguely defined.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is racial/ethnic identity?

<p>It refers to an individual's awareness and experience of being a member of a racial or ethnic group, including cultural, historical, and social aspects of that identity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain sexual orientation.

<p>It is the enduring emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction to other people.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is religious identity?

<p>An individual's sense of belonging to a religious group and the importance of the group's beliefs to a person's sense of self.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is occupational identity?

<p>A person's sense of self based on their job or career choice.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain familial identity.

<p>It is a part of an individual's sense of self that develops based on their relationships with their family.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are possible selves?

<p>These are the ideas of who you might become, your aspirations, your hopes, and your fears about what you may become.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the "Behavioral Perspective" emphasize in understanding development?

<p>The Behavioral Perspective emphasizes learning and behavior in explaining thoughts, feelings, and actions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is habituation?

<p>Habituation is becoming less responsive to a repeated stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of classical conditioning?

<p>Classical conditioning is the process of pairing two stimuli to elicit a response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?

<p>An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) naturally triggers a response without learning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is acquisition in terms of learning?

<p>Acquisition is the initial learning stage where a response is established.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of extinction on a learned response?

<p>Extinction is the diminishing of a conditioned response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Stimulus generalization refers to the ability to evoke different responses to a conditioned stimulus.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens in higher-order conditioning?

<p>Higher-order conditioning is the process of pairing a conditioned stimulus with a new one.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does counterconditioning work?

<p>Counterconditioning utilizes conditioning to change responses to triggers by associating the trigger with a more desirable response.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is taste aversion?

<p>Taste aversion is the avoidance of food associated with discomfort.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between one-trial conditioning and classical conditioning?

<p>One-trial conditioning is a type of learning where one single pairing between stimulus and response is enough to form an association.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe biological preparedness.

<p>Biological preparedness is the inclination to form associations between stimuli and responses based on biological tendencies.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key principle of operant conditioning?

<p>Operant conditioning focuses on learning through rewards and punishments.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How is reinforcement defined in the context of operant conditioning?

<p>Reinforcement strengthens behavior following it.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between primary and secondary reinforcers?

<p>Primary reinforcers are innate and satisfy biological needs, while secondary reinforcers gain their reinforcing power through association.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does punishment work?

<p>Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behavior repeating by delivering an unpleasant consequence following it.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does shaping involve in behavioral change?

<p>Shaping is a process of positive reinforcement to gradually shape behavior towards a desired outcome.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is instinctive drift as it relates to behavior?

<p>Instinctive drift is the tendency to revert back to instinctive patterns even after training.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does maturation influence development?

<p>Maturation is the process of biological growth that enables orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are reflexes?

<p>Reflexes are automatic responses to sensory stimuli, like grasping a finger or blinking when an object approaches the eye.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the rooting reflex.

<p>The rooting reflex is a baby's tendency to turn toward a touch on the cheek, open their mouth, and search for the nipple.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the visual cliff apparatus?

<p>The visual cliff apparatus is a laboratory device designed to test depth perception in infants and young animals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are critical periods?

<p>Critical periods are specific time windows during development when an organism must experience certain stimuli to develop normally.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are sensitive periods in development?

<p>Sensitive periods refer to times when an individual is more receptive to specific kinds of experiences that can shape their development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does imprinting occur in animals?

<p>Imprinting is the process where certain young animals form strong attachments to the first moving object they encounter during a critical period after birth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is puberty?

<p>Puberty is the period of sexual maturation when a person becomes capable of reproducing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is sex?

<p>Sex is the biological classification of males and females based on distinct biological characteristics.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is socialization?

<p>Socialization is the process of learning the norms, rules, and values of a culture or society.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who was Jean Piaget, and what is he known for?

<p>Jean Piaget was a psychologist renowned for his contributions to understanding cognitive development, particularly in children.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is object permanence?

<p>Object permanence is the awareness that objects continue to exist even when not perceived.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the key features of the preoperational stage in Piaget's theory?

<p>The preoperational stage, occurring roughly between ages two and seven, is marked by the development of language, but children lack the ability to perform mental operations or understand concrete logic.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are mental symbols in cognitive development?

<p>Mental symbols are internal representations or depictions of information that the mind can manipulate.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the chronosystem in Bronfenbrenner's ecological systems theory?

<p>The chronosystem encompasses changes over time in a child's development.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe authoritarian parenting style.

<p>Authoritarian parenting is characterized by high demands and low responsiveness, placing a strong emphasis on rules and obedience, often with limited communication and emotional warmth.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the defining characteristics of authoritative parenting?

<p>Authoritative parenting is characterized by high demands and high responsiveness, establishing clear boundaries and expectations while also being supportive, responsive, and engaging in communication with their children.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the defining characteristic of permissive parenting?

<p>Permissive parenting is characterized by low demands and high responsiveness, often involving lenient rules and few restrictions, with a strong emphasis on warmth and acceptance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of attachment styles relate to relationships?

<p>Attachment styles are patterns of interacting and behaving within relationships, heavily influenced by early experiences with caregivers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the defining characteristics of a secure attachment style?

<p>Secure attachment is characterized by trust, feeling worthy, and lacking fear of abandonment, stemming from consistent and reliable caregiving during childhood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the key aspects of an insecure attachment style?

<p>Insecure attachment styles involve fear of abandonment and struggling to feel one's needs being met in relationships, often stemming from inconsistent or unreliable caregiving during childhood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the avoidant attachment style.

<p>Avoidant attachment is characterized by difficulty learning to trust others and often involves suppressing emotional vulnerability and seeking independence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the defining features of anxious attachment?

<p>Anxious attachment involves constant worry about the stability of relationships and intense need for closeness and reassurance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is disorganized attachment?

<p>Disorganized attachment is characterized by lacking clear attachment behaviors, often displaying unpredictable, contradictory, or confusing behaviors in relationships.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the concept of egocentrism in child development.

<p>Egocentrism is the inability to understand that others have different perspectives, feelings, and desires from one's own.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the imaginary audience concept?

<p>The imaginary audience is an adolescent's belief that their behavior is being constantly observed and judged by others, often due to heightened self-consciousness during this stage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the personal fable in adolescent psychology?

<p>The personal fable is an adolescent's belief that they are unique, special, invincible, and immune to the consequences that others experience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is emerging adulthood?

<p>Emerging adulthood is a phase defined by transitions between adolescence and full-fledged adulthood, spanning generally from ages 18 to 25.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Erik Erikson's stage theory of psychosocial development?

<p>Erikson's stage theory outlines eight stages of psychosocial development that occur across the lifespan, focusing on the resolution of internal conflicts and the development of personal identity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the trust vs. mistrust stage in Erikson's theory.

<p>The trust vs. mistrust stage occurs from birth to approximately 18 months and focuses on the infant's ability to develop a sense of trust in the caregiver's ability to meet their needs.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the focus of the autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage in Erikson's theory?

<p>The autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage, occurring between 18 months and 3 years, focuses on the toddler's development of a sense of independence and the ability to control their actions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the focus of the initiative vs. guilt stage of Erik Erikson's theory?

<p>The initiative vs. guilt stage, occurring between ages 3 and 5, focuses on the development of a sense of purpose and initiative in pursuing goals while being able to navigate social expectations and accept limitations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Briefly describe the industry vs. inferiority stage in Erikson's theory.

<p>The industry vs. inferiority stage, spanning between ages 5 and 12, focuses on the child's development of competence and self-esteem in school and social settings, leading to a sense of accomplishment and a desire to learn and contribute.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the focus of Erikson's identity vs. role confusion stage?

<p>The identity vs. role confusion stage, typically occurring during adolescence between ages 12 and 18, focuses on the development of a cohesive sense of self and forming an identity by exploring values, beliefs, and roles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the focus of intimacy vs. isolation in Erikson's theory?

<p>The intimacy vs. isolation stage, occurring during young adulthood between ages 19 and 40, focuses on developing intimate and loving relationships with others while creating a sense of belonging and connection.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the focus of Erikson's generativity vs. stagnation stage?

<p>The generativity vs. stagnation stage, occurring during middle adulthood, focuses on finding a sense of purpose and contribution to society through work, family life, or community involvement, leaving a lasting impact on future generations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain the focus of the integrity vs. despair stage of Erikson's theory.

<p>The integrity vs. despair stage, appearing during late adulthood, focuses on reflecting on one's life and accepting its meaning and purpose with a sense of peace and acceptance, finding a sense of fulfillment and satisfaction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is achievement in the context of adolescent development?

<p>In adolescent development, achievement refers to the successful integration of various aspects of self-concept, including exploring roles, values, and beliefs, forming a strong sense of identity and purpose.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the status of identity development in diffusion.

<p>Identity diffusion is characterized by a lack of exploration and commitment to roles, values, and beliefs, leading to a state of uncertainty, indecisiveness, and a lack of clear direction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines the foreclosure status of identity development?

<p>Foreclosure involves commitment to roles, values, and beliefs without engaging in exploration, often accepting pre-determined identities or commitments without question.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Describe the moratorium status of identity development.

<p>Moratorium is characterized by active exploration of roles, values, and beliefs, accompanied by a period of crisis or questioning existing commitments and exploring alternatives.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is sexual orientation?

<p>Sexual orientation refers to an enduring emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction towards other people.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Explain religious identity.

<p>Religious identity involves an individual's sense of belonging to a specific religious group, often accompanied by a sense of purpose and meaning rooted in faith and belief.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Define familial identity.

<p>Familial identity is shaped by the relationships individuals have with their family members, influencing their sense of belonging, values, and traditions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Behavioral Perspective

Focuses on learning and behavior to explain thoughts, feelings, and actions.

Associative Learning

Learning by making connections between events.

Habituation

Decreased response to a repeated stimulus.

Classical Conditioning

Learning by pairing two stimuli to elicit a response.

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Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior learning.

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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

Initially neutral stimulus that begins to trigger a conditioned response.

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Extinction

Diminishing of a conditioned response when the CS is no longer paired with the UCS.

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Operant Conditioning

Learning that occurs through rewards and punishments.

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Authoritarian Parenting

A style with high expectations but low nurturance.

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Authoritative Parenting

A style with high demands and high responsiveness.

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Permissive Parenting

A style characterized by high love and few rules.

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Attachment Styles

Patterns of behavior in relationships influenced by attachment.

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Secure Attachment

An attachment style with trust and self-worth.

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Insecure Attachment

An attachment style marked by fear of abandonment.

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Avoidant Attachment

Difficulty trusting others leading to emotional distance.

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Anxious Attachment

An attachment style where individuals fear relationship stability.

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Gender

Socially influenced characteristics that define men and women.

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Socialization

The process of learning the norms and information of a culture or society.

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Jean Piaget

Psychologist known for studying cognitive development in children.

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Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget's first stage from birth to about 2 years, focused on sensory impressions and motor activities.

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Object Permanence

Awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

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Preoperational Stage

Piaget's second stage, ages 2 to 7, where children use language but struggle with concrete logic.

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Mental Symbols

Internal depictions of information the mind can manipulate.

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Chronosystem

In Bronfenbrenner's theory, it encompasses changes over time in child development.

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Temperament

A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.

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Separation Anxiety

Emotional distress seen in infants when separated from attachment figures.

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Contact Comfort

Physical and emotional comfort from being in contact with a caregiver.

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Parallel Play

Activity where children play adjacent to each other without direct interaction.

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Pretend Play

Play involving imaginary scenarios and characters.

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Egocentrism

Inability to understand that others have different perspectives and feelings.

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Imaginary Audience

Belief in adolescence that one’s behaviors are the focus of others’ attention.

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Personal Fable

Adolescent belief they are unique and invulnerable to risk.

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Social Clock

Culturally preferred timing of social events like marriage and parenthood.

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Integrity vs. Despair

The final stage of Erikson's psychosocial development, focused on reflecting back on life during old age.

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Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Traumatic events experienced in childhood, affecting long-term well-being.

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Achievement (adolescent development)

Successful integration of self-concept through exploration of roles and values.

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Diffusion (adolescent development)

A status of identity development where no crisis or commitments have been made.

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Erikson's stages

A theory outlining eight stages of psychosocial development across the lifespan.

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Psychosocial development

The process of personality and social understanding growth over time.

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Reflection on life

The process of evaluating past events and experiences, especially in old age.

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Identity development

The evolution of an individual's understanding of themselves through exploration and commitment.

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Emerging Adulthood

A life stage between late adolescence and early adulthood, ages 18 to 25.

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Stage Theory of Psychosocial Development

Erik Erikson's theory identifying eight developmental stages from infancy to late adulthood.

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Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage in Erikson's theory, from birth to 18 months, where infants learn if they can trust the world.

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Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage in Erikson's theory, from 18 months to 3 years, focusing on independence and self-esteem.

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Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage in Erikson's theory, occurring from 3 to 6 years, where children assert control through directing play and social interactions.

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Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth stage in Erikson's theory, from 6 to 12 years, centered around school and developing pride in accomplishments.

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Identity vs. Role Confusion

The fifth stage in Erikson's theory, from 12 to 18 years, where adolescents explore their personal identity and sense of self.

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Intimacy vs. Isolation

The sixth stage in Erikson's theory, occurring in young adulthood, focusing on forming intimate relationships.

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The Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by favorable consequences are repeated.

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Reinforcement

Strengthens the behavior it follows, leading to more frequent occurrence.

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Primary Reinforcers

Stimuli that satisfy biological needs naturally, like food or water.

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Secondary Reinforcers

Gains reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers.

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Punishment

An event that decreases the behavior it follows leading to less frequency.

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Shaping

Gradually reinforcing behaviors closer to the desired behavior.

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Maturation

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

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Reflexes

Automatic responses to sensory stimuli, like grasping a finger tightly.

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Acquisition

The initial learning stage where a conditioned response is established.

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Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished response after a pause.

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Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to differentiate between similar stimuli.

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Stimulus Generalization

When a conditioned stimulus evokes similar responses to other stimuli.

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Higher-Order Conditioning

Pairing a conditioned stimulus with a new stimulus.

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Counterconditioning

Using conditioning to change responses to certain stimuli.

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Taste Aversion

Avoiding food associated with discomfort after just one pairing.

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Guilt

A feeling that arises during preschool years (3-5) when children assert control.

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Generativity vs. Stagnation

The seventh stage (40-65 years) focusing on contributing to society and guiding the next generation.

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Foreclosure

Identity development status committing without crisis exploration.

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Moratorium

Identity development status in crisis with vague commitments.

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Racial/Ethnic Identity

Awareness of being part of a racial or ethnic group with cultural embrace.

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Sexual Orientation

Enduring attraction to others based on emotional or sexual feelings.

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Religious Identity

Sense of belonging to a religious group influencing self-perception.

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Occupational Identity

Self-identification through job roles and their impact on self.

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Familial Identity

Part of identity formed by family relationships and connections.

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One-Trial Conditioning

Learning that occurs after just one pairing of stimulus and response.

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Biological Preparedness

Natural inclination to associate certain stimuli and responses easily.

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Instinctive Drift

A tendency to revert to instinctive behaviors over learned ones.

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Visual Cliff

Device to test depth perception in infants.

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Critical Periods

Specific times when certain stimuli are essential for normal development.

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Disorganized Attachment

Inconsistent and unclear attachment behavior in relationships.

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Imprinting

Strong attachments formed during critical early life stages.

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Puberty

Stage of sexual maturation when individuals can reproduce.

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Spermarche

The first ejaculation in males, a milestone of puberty.

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Menarche

The first menstrual period, marking female maturation.

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Sensitive Periods

Times in development when certain experiences can strongly influence growth.

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Fine Motor Coordination

The ability to perform small, precise movements with hands and fingers.

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Gross Motor Coordination

The ability to use large muscle groups for big movements like walking or jumping.

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Emotional Reactivity

A person's tendency to respond emotionally in various situations.

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Foreclosure (adolescent development)

Identity commitment made without exploration, often influenced by parental expectations.

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Moratorium (adolescent development)

A status during identity development where individuals are exploring options without commitment.

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Possible Selves

Concept including hopes and fears about what one might become.

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Study Notes

Unit 3: Development & Learning

  • Behavioral Perspective emphasizes learning and behavior to explain thoughts, feelings, and actions

  • Associative Learning: involves making connections between events

  • Habituation: becoming less responsive to a repeated stimulus

  • Classical Conditioning: pairing two stimuli to elicit a response

    • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): naturally triggers a response without learning
    • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): initially neutral, triggers a conditioned response after learning
    • Acquisition: the initial learning stage where a response is established
    • Extinction: diminishing of a conditioned response
    • Spontaneous Recovery: reappearance of an extinguished response after a pause
    • Stimulus Discrimination: the ability to differentiate between stimuli
    • Stimulus Generalization: conditioned stimulus evokes similar responses
    • Higher-Order Conditioning: pairing a conditioned stimulus with a new one to change responses to triggers.

  • Counterconditioning: uses conditioning to change responses to triggers

  • Taste Aversion: avoidance of food associated with discomfort, learning with only one pairing of stimulus and response

  • One-Trial Conditioning: specific to taste aversion

  • Biological Preparedness: inclination to form associations between stimuli and responses

  • Operant Conditioning: learning through rewards and punishments

The Law of Effect

  • Behaviors with favorable consequences are repeated
  • Reinforcement: strengthens behavior it follows
    • Primary Reinforcers: innately reinforcing stimuli, satisfying biological needs
    • Secondary Reinforcers: gain reinforcing power through association
    • Punishment: event that decreases behavior
    • Shaping: positive reinforcement of behavior patterns
    • Instinctive Drift: tendency to revert to instinctive behaviors
  • Fine Motor Coordination: ability to make small precise movements
  • Gross Motor Coordination: ability to make large, general movements
  • Maturation: biological growth processes that enable orderly behavior changes relatively independent of experience
  • Reflexes: automatic responses to stimuli
    • Rooting Reflex: baby turning toward touch on the cheek
    • Visual Cliff: laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants
  • Critical Periods: specific time periods for developing normally
  • Sensitive Periods: times in development when a person is particularly open to certain kinds of experiences
  • Imprinting: process by which certain animals form strong attachments during early life
  • Growth Spurt: rapid increase in growth during puberty

Puberty

  • Primary Sex Characteristics: body structures necessary for reproduction
  • Secondary Sex Characteristics: nonreproductive traits, like breasts, hips, voice, and body hair
  • Menarche: first menstrual period
  • Spermarche: first ejaculation
  • Menopause: time of natural cessation of menstruation

Development & Learning (Socialization & Cognitive Development)

  • Socialization: process of learning norms, rules, and information of a culture or society
  • Jean Piaget: psychologist known for studies of cognitive development in children
  • Sensorimotor Stage: infants know the world through sensory impressions and motor activities; object permanence
  • Preoperational Stage: children use language but do not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic; Egocentrism: inability to see things from another's point of view; Imaginary audience, Personal fable
  • Mental Symbols: internal representations of information

Parenting Styles

  • Authoritarian Parenting: high demands, low responsiveness
  • Authoritative Parenting: high demands, high responsiveness
  • Permissive Parenting: low demands, high responsiveness
  • Chronosystem: changes over time in child development

Attachment Styles

  • Secure Attachment: trust, lack of concern with abandonment, sense of worthiness
  • Insecure Attachment: fear of abandonment, needs not being met
  • Avoidant Attachment: difficulty trusting others
  • Anxious Attachment: anxiety about relationship stability
  • Disorganized Attachment: lack of clear attachment behavior

Development & Learning (Other Concepts)

  • Temperament: characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
  • Separation Anxiety: emotional distress when separated from attachment figures
  • Emerging Adulthood: life stage between adolescence and adulthood (18-25), often characterized by exploration and indecisiveness.

Stages of Psychosocial Development (Erikson)

  • Trust vs. Mistrust: (birth-18 months); learning to trust the world

  • Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt: (18 months-3 years); developing independence and self-confidence

  • Initiative vs. Guilt: (3-5 years); asserting control and power over the environment

  • Industry vs. Inferiority: (5-12 years); coping with social and academic demands

  • Identity vs. Role Confusion: (12-18 years); exploring independence and developing a sense of self

  • Intimacy vs. Isolation: (19-40 years); forming intimate relationships

  • Generativity vs. Stagnation: (40-65 years); establishing careers, building relationships, family

  • Integrity vs. Despair: (old age); reflecting on life and finding meaning

  • Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs): potentially traumatic events in childhood (0-17 years)

  • Identity Statuses:

    • Diffusion: unsure of identity or commitments
    • Foreclosure: commits without exploration
    • Moratorium: exploring options

  • Racial/Ethnic Identity: awareness and experience of being a member of a racial or ethnic group

  • Sexual Orientation: emotional attraction to people

  • Religious Identity: sense of belonging to a religious group

  • Occupational Identity: sense of self based on job or career

  • Familial Identity: how individuals define themselves based on family relationships

  • Possible Selves: ideas about what someone could or should become, hopes and fears

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