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Questions and Answers

What is the relationship between the real self and the ideal self in Rogers' theory?

  • Congruence between the real and ideal self leads to a fully functioning person. (correct)
  • A mismatch between the ideal self and real self is beneficial for self-actualization.
  • Anxiety occurs when there is congruence between the real self and the ideal self.
  • Harmony is achieved when the ideal self is less than the real self.

    • What is the primary basis for self-concept according to Rogers' Theory of Self-Actualization?

  • An innate pursuit of self-actualization.
  • The mismatch between the real and ideal self.
  • An individual's achievements and public recognition.
  • Experiences and interactions with significant individuals. (correct)

    • How is the self-actualization tendency defined in Rogers' theory?

  • It refers to the development of personality based on external validation.
  • It denotes compliance with societal expectations and norms.
  • It is the inborn drive to realize one's innate capacities and capabilities. (correct)
  • It is described as a struggle to overcome basic needs before achieving self-growth.

    • Which of the following statements is true regarding the concepts of the real self and ideal self?

    <p>The real self reflects perceptions influenced by past experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What outcome is most likely to occur when there is a mismatch between the real self and ideal self in Rogers' theory?

    <p>Feelings of anxiety and dissatisfaction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following characteristics is associated with high scores in Agreeableness?

    <p>Affable and tolerant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does low scoring in Openness typically reflect about an individual's characteristics?

    <p>Being conventional and non-conforming</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following does not contribute to the understanding of personality according to the content provided?

    <p>Situational behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following traits is related to low levels of Neuroticism?

    <p>Calm and secure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor is primarily examined in behavioral genetics regarding personality?

    <p>Genetic differences among individuals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which criticism of trait theories highlights the potential unreliability of behavioral prediction?

    <p>Trait-situation interactions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement best describes the implications of twin studies in behavioral genetics?

    <p>Identical twins are more similar than fraternal or unrelated individuals on several traits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of the OCEAN model, which characteristic best reflects someone who is organized and dependable?

    <p>Conscientiousness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which personality theory emphasizes the role of unconscious psychological forces in behavior?

    <p>Psychodynamic Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What part of personality is governed by the pleasure principle, according to Freud?

    <p>Id</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes the concept of temperament in personality?

    <p>Hereditary and enduring aspects of personality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Freud's topographic model, which level of awareness includes thoughts we are currently focusing on?

    <p>Conscious Mind</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of personality develops adherence to moral standards and conscience according to Freud?

    <p>Superego</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theorist is NOT considered a key figure in the development of psychodynamic theories?

    <p>B.F. Skinner</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant criticism of the psychodynamic perspective?

    <p>Lack of empirical support</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which personality perspective emphasizes observable behaviors and their relationship with the environment?

    <p>Behavioural Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of personality is primarily rational and logical, as per Freud's theory?

    <p>Ego</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In personality psychology, what does the term 'trait' refer to?

    <p>A stable pattern exhibited in most situations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage represents the heritability of most traits according to behavioral genetic data?

    <p>50%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor is suggested to have a more powerful influence on personality development than parental guidance?

    <p>Peer groups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which type of personality assessment does the participant provide responses to ambiguous visual stimuli?

    <p>Projective tests</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a notable disadvantage of behavioral assessments in personality evaluation?

    <p>Observer bias</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which dimension differentiates cultures in the context of personality development?

    <p>Individualism vs. collectivism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of parental influence is highlighted regarding its consistency over time?

    <p>No single style is consistently effective</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following represents the primary focus of developmental psychology?

    <p>Lifespan changes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key implication of nonshared environments on sibling differences?

    <p>They account for substantial differences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major criticism of the Rorschach Inkblot Test in psychological assessments?

    <p>It has low reliability and validity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What key aspect is emphasized regarding the varying effects of culture on individuals?

    <p>Variability within cultural influences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage of moral development is characterized by obedience to avoid punishment?

    <p>Pre-conventional</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What cognitive ability is developed during adolescence according to Piaget?

    <p>Abstract thinking</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the conventional level of moral development, what is the main focus of behaviors?

    <p>Social expectations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of early adulthood (20-35 years)?

    <p>Peak physical health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to cognitive processing during middle adulthood (36-64 years)?

    <p>Decreased processing speed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the physical changes observed in late adulthood (65 years and above)?

    <p>Decrease in physical strength</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of cognitive development tends to decline in middle adulthood?

    <p>Processing speed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the focus of moral development in the post-conventional stage?

    <p>Personal ethical principles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes adolescent egocentric thinking?

    <p>Heightened self-importance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What health issue can impact middle adulthood and is usually influenced by genetic and lifestyle factors?

    <p>Menopause or andropause</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory suggests that age-related decline is due to accumulated cellular damage over time?

    <p>Wear-and-tear Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What phase in the 5 Stages of Grief is characterized by a protective mechanism from the intensity of loss?

    <p>Denial</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Activity Theory, what is associated with optimal aging?

    <p>Physical and mental activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory addresses how aging can lower the body's ability to cope with stress?

    <p>Hormonal Stress Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What emotional state might arise after recognizing feelings of abandonment during the grief process?

    <p>Anger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aging theory focuses on the role of unstable oxygen molecules in cellular damage?

    <p>Free-Radical Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of attitudes towards death, which factor is NOT typically influential?

    <p>Political affiliation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage of grief follows intense feelings of denial and usually involves a negotiation for an extension of life?

    <p>Bargaining</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which need is primarily associated with the drive to influence the behaviors of others?

    <p>Power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does a fixed mindset typically influence a person’s response to challenges?

    <p>Instills a tendency to avoid obstacles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Arousal Theory, what behavior is motivated by the need for stimulation?

    <p>Seeking new experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which personality type is more likely to be categorized as a sensation seeker?

    <p>Those who experience boredom easily</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What core belief underlies the Changeable Mindset in Dweck's Self-Theory of Motivation?

    <p>Effort leads to improvement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which pathway in the brain is associated with a slower, more complex processing of stimuli related to emotions?

    <p>The high road pathway</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hemisphere of the brain is primarily responsible for interpreting facial expressions?

    <p>Right hemisphere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which theory of emotion is the cognitive appraisal of a situation crucial for labelling an emotion?

    <p>Schachter-Singer Cognitive Arousal Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is particularly involved in the regulation of emotions like distraction and reappraisal?

    <p>Lateral prefrontal cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of emotion labeling suggests that this process is influenced by culture and language?

    <p>Learned responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which statement accurately reflects the relationship between arousal and task performance according to the Yerkes-Dodson law?

    <p>Moderate levels of arousal enhance performance based on task difficulty.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What differentiates incentives in the context of Incentive Theory?

    <p>Incentives can be both positive or negative stimuli influencing behavior.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, which statement is true regarding self-actualization?

    <p>Self-actualization can be influenced by both cultural and socio-economic factors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do physiological needs play in motivation according to the content provided?

    <p>They push individuals towards satisfying both needs and external incentives.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of task difficulty and arousal, which combination is correct?

    <p>Difficult tasks require a high level of arousal for optimal performance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best describes intrinsic motivation?

    <p>Performing an activity due to its personal enjoyment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory suggests that physiological needs create tension that motivates behavior?

    <p>Drive Reduction Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are secondary drives primarily influenced by?

    <p>Learned experiences and desires.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to instinct theory, what drives all behaviors?

    <p>Innate biological tendencies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key criticism of instinct theory?

    <p>It assumes behaviors are mostly innate and inflexible.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of motivation, what does homeostasis refer to?

    <p>The state of balance in bodily functions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of motivation discussed?

    <p>Psychological motivation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theorist's work contributed to the classification of instincts in humans?

    <p>McDougall</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What primarily characterizes primary drives?

    <p>They are innate and physiological.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of motivation is best illustrated by studying to gain a scholarship?

    <p>Extrinsic motivation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What hormone is primarily responsible for signaling hunger when the stomach is empty?

    <p>Ghrelin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the hypothalamus is responsible for increasing hunger?

    <p>Lateral Hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to hunger levels when insulin is secreted by the pancreas?

    <p>Hunger levels decrease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone produced by fat cells plays a role in suppressing hunger?

    <p>Leptin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)?

    <p>To determine energy expenditure at rest</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor contributes to the body's weight set point mechanism?

    <p>Hormonal regulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What social factor can influence an individual's eating habits?

    <p>Time of day</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the presence of others during meals affect eating behavior?

    <p>Can either increase or decrease consumption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a total score of 150-299 on the Social Readjustment Rating Scale indicate about the likelihood of getting sick?

    <p>50% chance of getting sick</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of internal conflict involves choosing between two desirable outcomes?

    <p>Approach-approach conflict</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the normal score range on the College Undergraduate Stress Scale (CUSS)?

    <p>800 - 1700</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the General Adaptation Syndrome, what is the first stage that the body goes through when responding to stress?

    <p>Alarm stage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What score on the Social Readjustment Rating Scale can indicate an 80% chance of becoming ill?

    <p>300 or more</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organ is responsible for activating lymphocytes in the immune system?

    <p>Thymus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What physiological effect occurs due to the fight or flight response in stressed individuals?

    <p>Increased cortisol levels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does psychoneuroimmunology study in relation to stress?

    <p>Influence of psychological, neural, and endocrine processes on health</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which internal stressor type is characterized by a psychological experience caused by urgent outside demands?

    <p>Pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a significant consequence of chronic stress as outlined in the content?

    <p>Suppressed immune system functioning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which therapy aims primarily to change dysfunctional thinking and behaviors?

    <p>Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes Modern Psychoanalysis from traditional psychoanalysis?

    <p>It is more directive and clients are referred to as individuals rather than patients.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In which therapy does the therapist support clients by demonstrating unconditional positive regard?

    <p>Person-Centered Therapy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key characteristic of Motivational Interviewing (MI)?

    <p>It aims to enhance a person's motivation to change through exploring ambivalence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What defines Insight Therapies in the context of psychotherapy?

    <p>They assist individuals in discovering the roots of their thoughts and behaviors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which behavioral therapy technique is commonly used to treat phobias?

    <p>Systematic Desensitization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does reflection play in Person-Centered Therapy?

    <p>It mirrors clients’ statements to seek clarification without interpretation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term best describes the use of conditioning principles to change maladaptive behaviors?

    <p>Behavioural Modification</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary focus of Gestalt Therapy?

    <p>Helping clients become aware of their true feelings and current behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which aspect differentiates Action Therapy from Insight Therapy?

    <p>Action Therapy emphasizes changing behavior rather than discovering reasons behind it.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does Psychoanalysis primarily differ from Psychodynamic Therapy?

    <p>Psychoanalysis emphasizes longer durations and more passive therapists.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which technique involves addressing unresolved conflicts through role-play in therapy?

    <p>Empty chair technique in Gestalt Therapy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a fundamental focus of Humanistic Therapies like Person-Centered Therapy?

    <p>To promote personal growth through self-understanding and acceptance.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a key characteristic of Generalized Anxiety Disorder?

    <p>Excessive anxiety about various events for more days than not for at least 6 months</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of episode characterizes Bipolar I Disorder?

    <p>Pervasive and significant elation or irritability lasting at least 1 week</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which disorder is most closely associated with repeated binge eating without compensatory behaviors?

    <p>Binge-Eating Disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What symptom is NOT typically associated with schizophrenia?

    <p>Repetitive compulsions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of mood disorders, what does learned helplessness typically explain?

    <p>Depression associated with perceived lack of control over outcomes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes Negative Symptoms in schizophrenia?

    <p>Diminished emotional expression or flat affect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one notable risk factor for Anorexia Nervosa?

    <p>Adolescence or young female gender</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which explanation for schizophrenia involves a genetic predisposition interacting with environmental stressors?

    <p>Stress-Vulnerability Model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cognitive distortion is characterized by focusing solely on negative aspects while ignoring positives?

    <p>Mental filtering</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which disorder is defined by pervasive instability in moods and self-image?

    <p>Borderline Personality Disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a primary aspect of biological causes of anxiety disorders?

    <p>Chemical imbalances in neurotransmitters like serotonin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes the symptoms of Acute Stress Disorder (ASD)?

    <p>Recurrence of distressing memories, flashbacks, and avoidance behaviors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common trait described in personality disorders?

    <p>Pervasive and enduring patterns of behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following accurately describes Statistical Deviance in the context of abnormal behavior?

    <p>Statistical deviance considers behaviors that are infrequent compared to the majority.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following best represents Inability to Function Normally as a criterion for psychological disorders?

    <p>A person who struggles to meet everyday demands and adapts poorly to stressors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the Sociocultural Perspective explain psychological disorders?

    <p>By analyzing the impact of social, family, and cultural influences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which is a significant change introduced in the DSM-5 regarding classification of mental disorders?

    <p>Replacement of categorical classification with a dimensional approach.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Subjective Discomfort refer to in the context of abnormal behaviors?

    <p>Emotional distress that significantly impacts an individual’s functioning.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about the Biopsychosocial Model is correct?

    <p>It integrates biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding mental health.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of anxiety disorder is characterized specifically by irrational fear of social situations?

    <p>Social Anxiety Disorder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes a panic attack from general anxiety according to the content?

    <p>Panic attacks involve a sudden rush of intense fear with multiple physical symptoms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a recognized category of anxiety-related disorders in DSM-5?

    <p>Mood Disorders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which describes the importance of using diagnostic labels in psychology?

    <p>They facilitate communication and understanding among professionals.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the DSM-5, behavior that is socially deviant is classified as a mental disorder only when:

    <p>It reflects dysfunction in psychological, biological, or developmental processes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What component of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) allows specific symptoms without exhaustive history?

    <p>Dimensional assessment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following phobias specifically involves a fear of heights?

    <p>Acrophobia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is true about common phobias listed in the content?

    <p>Hematophobia is the fear of blood.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What best defines 'mental illness' in psychological terms?

    <p>A wide range of mental health conditions with psychological dysfunction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which approach was predominant in the Middle Ages regarding the understanding of mental illness?

    <p>Demonology.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following was a significant advancement in the treatment of mental illness during the era of the reform movement?

    <p>The introduction of moral treatment with humane practices.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of Hippocrates in the context of mental health history?

    <p>He proposed the theory of four bodily humors affecting psychological state.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which model is predominantly used to understand the interactions of various factors influencing mental disorders?

    <p>Biopsychosocial model.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does psychopathology primarily study?

    <p>The origin, development, and manifestations of mental disorders.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was a major criticism of the classification of mental disorders historically?

    <p>It was often based on moral judgments rather than scientific evidence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of defining abnormality, which characteristic may NOT be considered?

    <p>Historical context of similar behaviors.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which method of treatment was viewed as revolutionary during the reform movement in mental health?

    <p>Treatment emphasizing humane care and moral support.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor was considered a key in the historical development of psychiatric classification?

    <p>Physiological observations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the final step in managing anxiety according to the outlined approach?

    <p>Manage anxiety using relaxation techniques in a systematic manner</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following describes aversion therapy?

    <p>Associating an unpleasant state with an unwanted behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What fundamental flaw does Cognitive Behavioral Therapy address?

    <p>Distorted thinking and irrational beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which therapeutic technique involves learning through observing others?

    <p>Modeling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the potential downsides of group therapy?

    <p>Greater privacy concerns for participants</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cognitive distortion involves making broad generalizations based on a single event?

    <p>Overgeneralization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy?

    <p>Challenges and modifies irrational beliefs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a common ethical concern in behavioral therapies?

    <p>Use of rewards and punishment to control behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main goal of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)?

    <p>Relieve symptoms while addressing thought patterns</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of therapy uses techniques like imagery and role-playing?

    <p>Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a notable characteristic of Biomedical Therapies?

    <p>Directly alters physiological functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'clarity of goals' refer to in the context of contingency contracts?

    <p>Clearly defined behavioral change goals and consequences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is considered a form of modern psychotherapy?

    <p>Cybertherapy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which therapy method aims to resolve personal issues through group dynamics?

    <p>Self-help Group</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    HSC1010 The Self: Part 1 - Theories of Personality

    • Key personality terms and perspectives are covered.
    • Psychodynamic theory, its legacy, and criticisms are explained.
    • Behavioral and social-cognitive theories, their contributions, and criticisms are described.
    • Humanistic theories, their contributions, and criticisms are explained.
    • Trait theories of personality, major dimensions, and pros/cons are described.
    • The influence of behavioral genetics, environment, and culture on personality is examined.
    • Various methods of assessing personality are identified.

    What is Personality?

    • Brian Little's TED talk on personality defines personality as the puzzle of who we are.

    Personality Terms

    • Personality: a relatively stable pattern of behavior, thoughts, and emotions
    • Character: personal characteristics related to moral and ethical behavior, acquired during upbringing
    • Temperament: hereditary and enduring aspects of personality
    • Personality Trait: stable qualities a person shows in most situations
    • Personality Type: psychological classification of individuals based on consistent common traits.

    Personality Perspectives

    • Four perspectives on viewing and explaining personality: psychodynamic, humanistic, behavioral/social-cognitive, and trait.

    Psychodynamic Theories

    • Variety of theoretical models derived from Freud's work.
    • Behavior is a product of psychological forces often outside of conscious awareness.
    • Well-known theorists include Freud, Jung, Adler, and Erikson.
    • The mind comprises three levels of awareness: conscious, preconscious (subconscious), and unconscious.

    Freud's Structure of Personality

    • Id: unconscious, present at birth, driven by the pleasure principle (immediate gratification).
    • Ego: mostly conscious, rational, and logical, develops in childhood and governed by the reality principle.
    • Superego: partly conscious, consists of conscience and ego ideal, develops in childhood and is driven by moral standards.

    Freud's Theory of Personality

    • Constant conflict (inner war) between id, ego, and superego can cause anxiety.
    • Ego defense mechanisms are used to reduce or redirect this anxiety.
    • Defense mechanisms unconsciously distort reality perception.

    Freud: Defense Mechanisms

    • Various defense mechanisms are listed, along with examples of how they operate.

    Freud: Personality Development

    • Personality develops through 5 psychosexual stages linked to sexual development.
    • Stages include oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
    • Failure to resolve conflicts in a stage can lead to fixation.

    Neo-Freudians

    • Followers of Freud who accepted basic concepts but altered aspects regarding social/cultural/interpersonal variables in personality.
    • Most influential Neo-Freudians: Jung, Adler, Horney, and Erickson

    Jung's Analytical Psychology

    • Personality comprised of a conscious ego, personal unconscious, and collective unconscious.
    • Collective unconscious contains universal archetypes.

    Adler's Individual Psychology

    • Seeking superiority to overcome feelings of inferiority
    • Developing birth order theory.

    Horney's Psychoanalytic Social Theory

    • Stressed the importance of social and cultural influences on personality development

    Erickson's Psychosocial Development Theory

    • Emphasizes the impact of social relationships across one's lifespan.
    • 8 psychosocial stages of development.

    Legacy of Psychoanalytic Theory

    • First to suggest a unified theory for explaining human behavior, and a predecessor to later personality theories
    • Explored insights into personality development through stages.
    • Recognized the importance of early life experiences on personality.

    Criticisms of Psychodynamic Theories

    • Many concepts about unconscious motivations are impossible to confirm or disconfirm
    • Theories based on experiences of few atypical patients
    • Theories of personality development based on retrospective accounts of adults.
    • Reliance on diagnosis based on interpretation of dreams and free association.
    • Overemphasis on sexual instincts.

    Behavioral & Social-Cognitive Theories

    • Behavioral Perspective: personality comprises learned responses and habits (automatic).
    • Social-Cognitive Perspective: behavior is influenced by interactions between people's traits and their social context.
    • Social learning, imitation of others, and cognitive factors influence personality development

    Bandura's Reciprocal Determinism

    • Behavior is influenced by the interaction of three factors: behavior, personal factors (beliefs, attitudes, knowledge, expectations), and environment (stimuli, reinforcement, social norms)

    Rotter's Social Learning Theory

    • Personality is a stable set of potential responses to various situations, based on beliefs and having or not having control over events.
    • Loccus of Control (Internal vs. External)
    • Expectancy: behavior influenced by cognitive expectations.

    Evaluation of Social-Cognitive Theories

    • Contributions of social-cognitive theories highlight the effects of situations on individuals.
    • Theories expanded on behavioral approaches by focusing on learning and cognition
    • Critiques of social-cognitive theories are that they focus too much on the situation, ignore the role of individual emotions and genetics, and dilute the behaviorist approach

    Humanistic Theories

    • Emphasize personal growth, resilience, and the achievement of human potential.
    • Emphasize free will and choice.
    • Emphasize the inherent goodness of people.
    • Focus on natural progress towards self-actualization (striving for one's potential).

    Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

    • Self-actualization is at the top of the hierarchy; motivation to reach one's potential.

    Rogers' Theory of Self (or Self-Actualization Theory)

    • Self-concept—formed by interactions with significant others
    • Real self—perception of actual traits;
    • Ideal self—perception of what one would like to be;
    • Fully functioning person—congruence between real self and ideal self.

    Evaluation of Humanistic Theories

    • Contributions are that theories influenced many fields, provided foundations for positive psychology, and brought resilience, empathy and altruism to the forefront.
    • Criticisms include vague, subjective, and untestable concepts, too much emphasis on individualism, inherent goodness in people being too optimistic/naive.

    Trait Theories

    • Traits are defined as stable and enduring predispositions to think, feel, and behave in a certain way.
    • Trait theories focus on identifying, describing, and measuring personality characteristics.
    • Key theorists include Allport, Cattell, McCrae & Costa (Big Five/OCEAN), and Eysenck.

    Cattell's 16 Personality Factors

    • Identified 16 personality traits using factor analysis.
    • Developed a test to measure those traits.
    • Surface traits and source traits identified.

    McCrae & Costa's Big Five

    • Identified 5 major personality dimensions (OCEAN).

    Evaluation of Trait Theories

    • Traits can be empirically measured using tests.
    • Emphasize the role of individual differences in personality
    • Cross-cultural studies support Big Five & Eysenck.
    • Issues with not taking environment/situation into account; traits are not always enduring; traits are subject to change, influences are also diverse and complex.

    Other Influences of Personality

    • Biology, Environment, Culture, and Personality Assessments

    Biology & Personality

    • Heritability studies on twins and adopted individuals show genetic influence on personality.
    • Nature vs. Nurture in explaining behavior.

    Environment & Personality

    • Social learning theories—learning through observation and imitation—influence on personality.
    • Parental influence.
    • Power of peers.

    Culture & Personality

    • Differences exist between individualistic and collectivist cultures.
    • Cultural influences affect behavior.

    Assessment of Personality

    • Interviews assess personality through questions.
    • Projective tests—using ambiguous stimuli to gain insight about personality.
    • Behavioral assessments through direct observations in natural settings or clinical settings..
    • Personality inventories are standard tests that assess personality characteristics

    Other pages provide detail on:

    • Prenatal Development
    • Infancy and Childhood (physical, cognitive, language, psychosocial development, attachment, temperament, language development, and Autism Spectrum Disorder)
    • Adolescence (physical, cognitive, psychosocial, and moral development)
    • Adulthood (physical, cognitive, psychosocial development and aging theories)
    • Grief and Loss
    • Biopsychosocial Approach on Healthy Aging

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