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Questions and Answers
What is the extent to which measures are consistent called?
Which method involves understanding the unique values and traditions of a specific culture?
What is a detailed record of an individual's development called?
Which method is known for potentially lacking honesty and accuracy when used with young children?
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What was the first scientific attempt to record infant development known as?
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Which method involves recording parental psychophysiological states?
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What is the main difference between true experiments and quasi-experiments?
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What procedure is used to familiarize infants with a given stimulus via repeated exposures?
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What is examined in high amplitude sucking procedure regarding infant's preferences or discrimination abilities?
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Which assessment tool evaluates areas such as cognitive, language, motor, adaptive behavior, and socio-emotional development in infants?
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What is the main focus of conditioned head turning in infants?
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Which type of experiment utilizes naturally occurring variables rather than manipulated variables?
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What type of attention involves the infant being drawn to a stimulus?
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Which study is associated with the concept of primary emotions that emerge within the first year after birth?
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What did Harlow and Harlow's study with monkeys reveal about social and emotional development?
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Which researcher is associated with the concept of habituation, which is a disinterest in a stimulus after multiple presentations?
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What is the main difference between passive and active attention in infants?
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Which study highlighted the impact of a mother's absence on infants and their subsequent relationships?
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What type of learning is based on a learned association between a behavior and a consequence?
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Which research method is used to assess an infant's response to an unresponsive social partner?
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What is the process by which infants learn new behaviors through observation?
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What is the term for learned associations between environmental signals or cues?
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Which research method is used to assess an infant's attachment to a caregiver?
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What is the process by which a previously learned behavior is reactivated after extinction?
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What do early studies of social development suggest about infant development?
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What is the primary focus of the nature side of the nature/nurture debate?
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Which research method involves observing infants in their natural environment?
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What do early studies of attentional and cognitive development suggest about infants?
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What is the primary focus of the nurture side of the nature/nurture debate?
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What do self-conscious emotions indicate about infant development?
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Study Notes
Hypothesis and Gathering Data
- A hypothesis is a theoretical prediction about some aspect of experience.
- Gathering data involves choosing measures that are relevant, reliable, and valid.
- Reliability refers to the consistency of measures, while validity refers to the extent to which measures measure what they are intended to measure.
- Types of gathering data methods include self-report, observational, case studies, and psychophysiological methods.
Methods of Gathering Data
- Self-report methods: structured interviews, questionnaires, and diary studies.
- Strengths: quick and rich data; limitations: may lack honesty and accuracy, and may not be suitable for young children.
- Observational methods: naturalistic observation, structured observation, and time sampling.
- Case studies: a detailed record of an individual's development.
- Ethnography: a method of understanding the unique values, traditions, and social processes of a specific culture or subculture.
- Psychophysiological methods: heart rate, electroencephalogram (EEG), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and parental psychophysiological states.
Experimental Designs
- Independent variable: manipulated variable; dependent variable: measured variable.
- Two types of experiments: true experiment (with random assignment) and quasi-experiment (naturally occurring).
Sensory Capabilities
- Infants' sensory capabilities can be studied using techniques such as tracking, neonatal behavioral assessment scale, preference paradigms, habituation paradigm, and high amplitude sucking.
- Habituation paradigm: a procedure used to familiarize infants with a given stimulus via repeated exposures.
- High amplitude sucking: a procedure used to examine infant's preferences or discrimination abilities by making stimulus presentation contingent with infant's sucking on a non-nutritive nipple.
Cognition and Learning
- Infants' cognitive abilities can be studied using measures such as Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Mental Development Index, and Psychomotor Development Index.
- Bayley Scales of Infant Development: assesses cognitive, language, motor, adaptive behavior, and socio-emotional development.
- Rate of habituation: a measure of infant's cognitive development.
Early Studies of Infant Development
- Wolf and Wolff (1947): studied hospitalism and anaclitic depression.
- Bowlby (1951): developed object relation theory.
- Provence and Lipton (1962): studied strained caregiving networks in orphanages.
- Harlow and Harlow (1965): studied the effects of separation from mothers on monkeys.
Early Studies of Social Development
- Infants are born into social networks.
- Mothers' absence can lead to significant loss and contradictory viewpoints.
Early Studies of Attentional and Cognitive Development
- William James (1890): studied passive attention and active attention.
- Robert Fantz (1958, 1964): studied visual perception.
- Bower (1966): studied training and conditioning of infants.
- Lewis, Kagan, and colleagues (1963, 1965): studied attentional processes and physiological response.
- Sokolov (1963): studied habituation.
Early Studies of Emotional Development
- Darwin (1872): identified primary emotions and self-conscious emotions.
- Lewis and Michalson (1983): studied self-awareness using the rouge test.
Key Issues in Infancy Research
- Passive vs. classical conditioning.
- Expectancy violation.
- Image from: www.todaysparent.com.
Cognition and Learning
- Contingency or operant learning: a learned association between a behavior and a consequence.
- Imitation: a learned association between a behavior and a consequence.
- Memory reactivation: a reminder of a previous consequence of a particular behavior.
- Reinstatement: after extinction, a reactivation of a previously learned behavior from an association between a given consequence and a particular behavior.
Socio-Emotional Behaviour
- Mother-child interactions can be coded and studied.
- Specific behaviors that occur and their order of occurrence can be studied.
- Still-face procedure: used to assess an infant's response to an unresponsive social partner.
Socio-Emotional Behaviour
- Desynchronized interaction.
- Strange situation: a paradigm used to assess infant's attachment to caregiver.
Summary
- Early studies of social development demonstrate the importance of social networks for infant development.
- Early studies of attentional and cognitive development suggest that infants are born with the ability to perceive their environment and have preferences.
- Self-conscious emotions are linked to growth in self as a cognitive representation.
- Infants are active in their own development.
- The nature side of the nature/nurture debate stresses the role of genetic factors on development, while the nurture side of the debate stresses the role of environmental influences on development.
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Description
Test your knowledge on research methods in psychology, including hypothesis, data gathering, reliability, and validity. Learn about self-report methods like structured interviews and questionnaires.
