Psychology Research Methods Quiz

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Questions and Answers

What is one reason some researchers argue deception in studies may be justified?

The knowledge gained can outweigh the costs of lying. (correct)

Participants are always aware of the deception.

It increases participants' overall enjoyment.

It simplifies the research process significantly.

What is required of researchers after a study involving deception?

They should set up another study immediately.

They must conduct a debriefing session. (correct)

They can inform participants only if they request it.

They must give participants a gift.

Which of the following is a form of deception that involves lying to participants?

Deception through exaggeration

Deception through commission (correct)

Deception through omission

Deception through misunderstanding

What can help diminish the negative effects of deception on participants?

Providing a thorough debriefing session. Signup and view all the answers

Why might nondeceptive studies also have a debriefing session?

To enhance the educational experience. Signup and view all the answers

What have studies indicated about undergraduates' responses to deception in research?

They tolerate minor deception and stress. Signup and view all the answers

What type of deception involves withholding details from participants?

Deception through omission Signup and view all the answers

What does APA require regarding deceptive research designs?

They must be avoided unless absolutely necessary. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of good theories in psychological research?

They are supported by data. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'empiricism' refer to in psychological science?

Using evidence from senses or instruments. Signup and view all the answers

According to the theory-data cycle, what must scientists do after collecting data?

Test and potentially change their theories. Signup and view all the answers

What is a hypothesis in the context of scientific research?

A prediction of specific outcomes based on theories. Signup and view all the answers

What is indicated by the phrase 'good theories are falsifiable'?

They must make predictions that could potentially fail. Signup and view all the answers

In Harlow's monkey experiment, which theory was evaluated through the data collected?

The cupboard theory. Signup and view all the answers

What is parsimony in relation to scientific theories?

Favoring simpler theories that explain the data equally well. Signup and view all the answers

What role does data play in evaluating scientific theories?

Data is crucial for determining the weight of evidence for or against a theory. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of an Institutional Review Board (IRB)?

Ensuring ethical standards are upheld in research involving human participants. Signup and view all the answers

Which principle emphasizes the fair treatment of research participants?

Justice Signup and view all the answers

What must an IRB panel include to be compliant?

Five or more members from diverse backgrounds. Signup and view all the answers

What does the principle of Respect for persons primarily safeguard?

The rights and dignity of participants. Signup and view all the answers

Which ethical standard is specifically focused on psychologists as researchers?

Ethical Standard 8. Signup and view all the answers

What precaution should researchers take regarding participants who may struggle with autonomy?

Ensure they are not coerced into participation. Signup and view all the answers

What could happen to a psychologist who violates the APA's ethical standards?

They may lose their professional license. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following reflects the principle of Integrity?

Striving to be honest as a researcher, teacher, or practitioner. Signup and view all the answers

What is a major flaw of a one-group pretest/posttest design?

Lack of a control group Signup and view all the answers

Which internal validity threat refers to improvements in behavior that occur naturally over time?

Maturation threat Signup and view all the answers

How can researchers mitigate the effects of history threats in a one-group pretest/posttest study?

Include a comparison group Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for when a group's average score is unusually extreme at one measurement point?

Regression to the mean Signup and view all the answers

What does attrition threat refer to in a one-group pretest/posttest design?

Systematic dropout of certain participants Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a recommended solution to avoid testing threats?

Introduce posttest-only designs Signup and view all the answers

Which internal validity threat involves changes due to external factors that affect the entire treatment group simultaneously?

History threat Signup and view all the answers

In a one-group pretest/posttest design, what is a common misconception about the observed changes in the participants?

Changes are exclusively due to the treatment Signup and view all the answers

What is necessary for establishing a causal claim in research?

Internal validity Signup and view all the answers

What does a third variable problem in correlation studies refer to?

A variable that may account for a spurious association Signup and view all the answers

Which type of variable is manipulated by researchers in an experiment?

Independent variable Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of using control variables in an experiment?

To eliminate alternative explanations Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following terms describes the systematic difference in participant characteristics across different levels of an independent variable?

Selection effects Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of a moderator variable in research?

It alters the strength of the relationship depending on another variable. Signup and view all the answers

Which component is essential for ensuring covariance in experiments?

Experimental groups Signup and view all the answers

Unsystmatic variability in a study is generally considered:

Unproblematic if randomized Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used when the correlation between two variables is influenced by another variable?

Moderated association Signup and view all the answers

What is the aim of using a placebo group in an experiment?

To provide a neutral comparison condition Signup and view all the answers

What does a high effect size indicate in relation to variance?

Low variance Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is classified as a confound?

Providing an alternative explanation for an effect Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a crossover interaction?

Effects depend on the type of condition Signup and view all the answers

In a factorial design with 2 independent variables, how many main effects can be found?

2 main effects Signup and view all the answers

What do marginal means represent in a factorial design?

Means for each level of an independent variable Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following terms refers to the process of determining how one variable affects others?

Testing for interactions Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome when both a main effect and an interaction effect are present in a study?

The interaction effect is usually more impactful Signup and view all the answers

What indicates a potential interaction when using a graph?

Different heights of bars in a bar graph Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of obscuring factors?

Providing alternative explanations Signup and view all the answers

What is a participant variable in the context of factorial designs?

An independent variable that is measured Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Research Producers and Consumers

Students who want to be research producers need skills to conduct research
Students who want to be research consumers need skills to interpret research findings
Skills researchers need include:
- Random assignment of people in groups to test therapies and policies
- Accurate data collection (ex: measuring attitudes)
- Interpreting results (ex: from graphs)
Skills consumers of research need include:
- Finding, reading and evaluating research
- Critically interrogating information and asking right questions
- Determining answers from research and using them to make sound decisions
Most psychologists use both roles: researching the work of others and creating new knowledge

Empiricism

Empiricism = using evidence from the senses or from tools that enhance sense to understand the world
Empiricists aim for their work to be independently verifiable by others

The Theory-Data Cycle

Theory-data cycle = a systematic process for solving a research problem
This involves proposing theories, generating hypotheses, collecting data, using data to update/test the theory

Theories Don't Prove Anything

Theories can be supported by data, or falsified (disproved) by data
Theories are supported by data.
Good theories are falsifiable, meaning they can be disproven by data.
Data is useful if they convince us whether a theory is correct or not.
Good theories are parsimonious - simplest explanation that accounts for the data is preferred
Theories are not about proving things, but using data to support or challenge them

Applied and Basic Research

Applied research is developed with a practical problem in mind, solving it in a specific real-world context
Basic research aims to enhance general knowledge in psychology
Translational research connects basic research to applied research, used in healthcare or psychotherapy.

Publication Process

Publishing research results involves worldwide scientific communication (ex: peer-reviewed journals)
Publication process in journals helps to sharpen thinking and improve communication

Journal vs. Journalism

Journals are primarily read by other scientists and psychology students
Journalism includes news, commentary, articles, and resources readily accessible to the public (ex: TV, magazines, newspapers)
It is important to be aware of the potential risks of journalism coverage - ex: sensationalizing the story

The Empirical Cycle

The cycle involves a sequence of steps that include observation, evaluation, the development of theories and hypotheses, testing them through research and then revising or confirming the theory

Psychology and Data

Data is formed by making observations. These observations then shape and test theories
Theories are sets of statements describing how variables relate to each other
Hypotheses are predictions, specific outcomes of a research that either supports or challenges a theory

Sources of Information

The most accurate source of information is research information, not personal experience or intuition

Research Versus Personal Experience

Personal experiences can be inaccurate because they don't have comparison groups, many things are happening at once, and it's impossible to know which factor is responsible for a particular outcome

Research Versus Intuition

Intuition can be bad information because it's affected by thinking biases.
Availability heuristics: peoples' thinking will get influenced by what's most readily available to their minds.
Present/present bias: what's present is easier to notice than what's absent, even if not relevant
Confirmation bias: actively seeking out information that confirms a hypothesis and ignoring contrary information
Bias blind spot: people underestimate their own biases
Unreliable: some sources of information may be inaccurate

Finding & Reading Research

Empirical journal articles report new research findings.
Review journal articles summarize existing research in an area.
Books and edited books contain chapters on common topics written by experts

Claims and Validities

Claims are arguments or statements
Frequency claims describe a rate or degree of a single variable
Association claims describe the relationship between two variables (measured for correlation)
Causal claims describe one variable as causing the other
Construct validity = asks how well a conceptual variable is operationalized
External validity = asks if results are generalisable to a larger population.
Statistical validity = asks if the data supports the claim, how strong the relationship and how precise the estimate is (confidence intervals)
Internal validity = asks if there are any alternative explanations for the relationship between the two variables

Construct, Conceptual, and Operational Definitions

Construct: abstract variable, part of a theory.
Conceptual definition: a variable precisely described
Operational definition = the specific way a concept is measured or manipulated in an actual study

Types of Variables

Constant: one level
Measured variables: whose level are simply observed and recorded
Manipulated variables: whose levels the researcher controls

Measuring Variables

Self-report: participants' answers to questions about themselves
Observational: recording observable behaviors
Physiological: biological data (ie: heart rate)

Validity and Reliability of Measures

Validity = does the measure measure what it's supposed to measure? (ex: face validity, content validity, criterion validity, convergent validity, discriminant validity)
Reliability = how precise are the measurements? (ex: test-retest reliability, interrater reliability, internal reliability)
Measuring reliability:
- Test-retest: how consistent scores are over time
- Interrater: how consistent scores are between different raters
- Internal consistency: how consistent scores are within the measure itself

Claims and Validity (Frequency, Association, Causal)

Frequency claims: describe a rate of a degree of a particular variable in a population (ex: rate of teen texting while driving)
Association claims: argue that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable, sometimes correlational
Causal claims: one variable causes a second variable, requiring experimental research

The Three Claims and Four Validities

Frequency claims (external + statistical)
Association claims (construct + external + statistical)
Causal claims (construct + statistical + internal + external)

Types of Correlations

Positive association: variables go in the same direction
Negative association: variable changes in opposite directions
Zero association: variables do not change together

Causality

Causation needs three factors:
- Covariance: the two variables change together.
- Temporal precedence: the causal variable comes before the effect variable.
- Internal validity: no alternative explanations for the relationship

Interrogating Causality

Interrogating construct validity:
How well were the variables measured or manipulated?
Interrogating external validity:
To whom can the association be generalized?
Interrogating statistical validity:
How well do the data support the claim?
Interrogating internal validity:
Are there alternative explanations for the results?
3rd variable explanations
Spurious associations
Moderators
Curvilinear association

Experimental Design

Manipulation of an independent variable to observe effects on the dependent variable
Control variables are held constant
Comparison group: a group not exposed to the experimental manipulation
Treatment group: group exposed to the manipulation
Participants should be randomly assigned

Internal Validity Threats

A confounding variable obscures the true effect of the independent variable, ex: maturation threat, history threat, attrition threat, instrumentation threat, testing threat, selection-history, selection-attrition, design confound, order effect, observer bias

Independent Variables

Manipulated: the variable the experimenter has control over, and is changing
Measured: a variable that is observed, and can't be changed by the experimenter

Relationships Between Variables

Positive relationship= both variables move in the same direction
Negative relationship = variables move in opposite directions
Curvilinear relationship means not linear and not necessarily causal

Quasi-Experiments

Quasi experiments have characteristics of an experiment without using random assignment
Types: non-equivalent control group design, interrupted time-series design, nonequivalent control group interrupted time-series design

Dealing with Confounds

Subtracting it out (ex: placebo)
Taking it out (removing confounds)
Checking it out by investigating the effects

Power and Null Effects

Power = the likelihood that a researcher will find a statistically significant, and reliable effect when there is a real effect of an IV on a DV
Null effects are when the independent variable doesn't have an effect on the dependent variable; this could be because the effect size is too small or there's too much variability within groups

Experiments with More Than One Independent Variable

Main effect: the effect of one independent variable on the dependent variable (ignoring other variables), ex: how different lighting levels affect test performance
Interaction effect: the effect of one independent variable on the dependant variable depends (or interacts) with the level of another, ex: the effect of different lighting levels on test performance depends on the type of task.

Small-N Designs

Small-N designs involve just a few individuals allowing researchers to study behaviors that don't generalise to the general population
Types: stable-baseline design, multiple-baseline design, reversal design

Ethical Issues and Research Design

Researchers need to consider the potential for negative ethical consequences of their research.
Deception and Data fabrication:
- Researchers should avoid deceiving participants unless absolutely necessary; participants should be debriefed.
- Data fabrication is a severe ethical violation.

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Description

Test your understanding of deception in psychological studies and the ethical requirements researchers must adhere to after conducting such research. This quiz covers key concepts such as the theory-data cycle, the importance of good theories, and the role of debriefing in studies. Prepare to deepen your knowledge of research methodology in psychology.