Psychology Research Methods

Operational Definition

• Specifies how a concept is measured/defined in a study.
• Ensures clarity and consistency in research.
• Allows other researchers to replicate findings.

Case Study

• Detailed examination of an individual, group, or event.
• Provides in-depth insights.
• May lack generalizability due to focus on one instance.

Correlational Study

• Assesses the relationship between two or more variables.
• Determines if variables are associated.
• Does not establish causation.

Correlation and Causation

• Correlation does not prove causation.
• Variables may be influenced by a third variable.

Correlation Coefficient

• Quantifies the strength and direction of relationship between variables.
• Denoted as "r."
• Ranges from -1 to +1.

Standard Deviation

• Measures the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.
• Low standard deviation = values close to the mean.
• High standard deviation = wider range of values.

Independent Variable

• Manipulated/changed in an experiment.
• Used to observe its effects.

Dependent Variable

• Measured in an experiment.
• Affected by changes in the independent variable.

Mean Calculation

• Sum all values in a data set.
• Divide by the number of values.

Range Calculation

• Subtract the smallest value from the largest value in a data set.

Biological Bases of Behavior

• Sympathetic Nervous System: Prepares the body for "fight or flight" by increasing heart rate, dilating pupils, and inhibiting digestion.
• Reuptake: Neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after transmitting a signal.
• Endorphins: Neurotransmitters relieve pain and induce feelings of pleasure.
• Alcohol and Memory: Alcohol impairs memory by affecting the hippocampus, which is crucial for new memories.
• Medulla: Controls vital functions such as breathing and heart rate.
• Reticular Formation: Involved in arousal and attention.
• Circadian Rhythm Disruption: Also known as circadian rhythm disorder.
• Sleep Apnea: Pauses in breathing or shallow breaths during sleep.
• Sensory Adaptation: Sensitivity to stimuli decreases after prolonged exposure.
• Transduction: Conversion of physical energy (light or sound) into neural signals.

Cognition

• Divergent Thinking: Generates creative ideas by exploring possible solutions.
• Algorithm: Guarantees a solution with a step-by-step procedure to solve a problem .
• Mental Set: Tendency to approach problems in a particular way based on past experiences.
• Availability Heuristic: Mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples when evaluating a topic.
• Deep Processing: Encoding information based on meaning and relation to prior knowledge.
• Episodic Memory: Explicit memory involving recollection of specific events/experiences.
• Serial Position Effect: Remember the first and last items in a list better than middle items.
• Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after brain injury/trauma.
• Proactive Interference: Older memories interfere with retrieving newer memories.
• Reliability: Consistency of a measure; a reliable test yields the same results under consistent conditions.

Development

• Teratogen: Causes malformation of an embryo.
• Rooting Reflex: Infants turn heads toward touch on the cheek.
• Physical Development Stages: Occurs in stages based on both age and action.
• Secondary Sex Characteristics: Develop during puberty, like breast development and facial hair.
• Preoperational Stage: Piaget's theory (ages 2-7); characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism.
• Object Permanence: Objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.
• Egocentrism: Inability to differentiate between one's perspective and that of others.
• Theory of Mind: Able to understand that others have thoughts, beliefs, and desires different from one's own.
• Learning Phonemes: Easiest to learn new phonemes during early childhood.
• Morpheme: The smallest unit of meaning in a language.