Psychology Overview and Approaches

Psychology Study Notes

• Psychology is the scientific study of behaviors and mental processes, aiming to understand how people think, feel, and act.
• Studying how stress affects work performance is an example of psychology combining observation of behaviors with mental processes.
• The goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict, and control behaviors.
• The biological level of analysis examines genetic, neurochemical, and physiological influences on behavior.
• The psychological level focuses on internal processes like emotions, thoughts, and behaviors.
• The scientific approach in psychology relies on empirical evidence – gathered through observation and experimentation, minimizing bias with systematic methods such as double-blind studies.
• The social-cultural level of analysis explores how societal and cultural contexts shape behavior, such as the impact of cultural norms on greeting behaviors.
• Common sense often leads to misinterpretations while science relies on empirical evidence and systematic methods to understand behavior.
• Naïve realism is the belief that we see the world as it truly is, which can lead to misinterpretations, such as those seen in optical illusions.
• A theory is a well-supported explanation that organizes observations and predicts outcomes, such as evolutionary theory explaining behaviors aiding survival.
• A hypothesis is a testable prediction derived from a theory.
• Confirmation bias is the tendency to favor information that confirms one's beliefs, while ignoring evidence to the contrary.
• Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to beliefs despite contradictory evidence.
• Pseudoscience refers to claims appearing scientific but lacks rigorous evidence.
• Warning signs of pseudoscience include overuse of anecdotes, lack of peer review, and use of scientific-sounding terms without evidence.
• Examples of pseudoscience include astrology and homeopathy.
• The bandwagon fallacy is the belief in a claim, simply because it is widely accepted.
• Scientific skepticism involves open-mindedly evaluating claims and demanding robust evidence before accepting them.
• Circular reasoning occurs when the conclusion is used as its own premise.
• Ruling out rival hypotheses involves considering alternative explanations for a phenomenon and determining which is most plausible.
• Correlation indicates a relationship between two variables, while causation implies that one variable directly affects the other.
• Falsifiability refers to the ability of a claim to be proven false.
• Replicability ensures that results can be consistently reproduced by different researchers.
• Demanding extraordinary evidence for extraordinary claims states that the more unusual a claim is, the more substantial evidence is needed to support it.
• Occam's Razor suggests that the simplest explanation, with the least assumptions, is often the correct one.
• Wundt established structuralism, focusing on analyzing the structure of the mind through introspection.
• Functionalism explores the purpose of mental processes and how they aid adaptation to the environment.
• Pavlov's dogs salivating at the sound of a bell associated with food, is an example of behaviorism.
• Cognitivism investigates internal mental processes, while behaviorism focuses on observable behaviors.
• Psychoanalysis studies unconscious drives and conflicts, exploring repressed desires and their influence on behavior.
• Humanism emphasizes personal growth, potential, and the importance of self-actualization.
• The biological perspective examines genetic and neural mechanisms that influence behavior.
• The nature vs. nurture debate explores the relative contributions of genetics and environment to human behavior.
• The free will vs. determinism debate questions whether individuals have the freedom to choose their actions or if their behavior is determined by external factors.
• MRI provides high-resolution images of brain structures, useful for diagnosing conditions like brain tumors.
• fMRI measures blood flow to show active brain regions during tasks, while MRI focuses on structural images.
• EEG records electrical activity in the brain, making it useful for studying sleep patterns and diagnosing conditions like epilepsy.
• Dendrites receive incoming signals from other neurons, playing a crucial role in communication.
• The soma maintains the health of the neuron and contains the cell's nucleus.
• The axon transmits signals away from the soma to other neurons or muscles.
• Synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, facilitating communication between neurons.
• Dopamine is a neurotransmitter associated with reward and motivation, often spiking during pleasurable activities.
• Serotonin regulates mood and sleep, with deficiencies linked to conditions like depression.
• GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that calms brain activity, often enhanced by anti-anxiety medications.
• Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to reorganize itself after injury or learning.
• Sensation is the detection of stimuli, while perception is the interpretation of that sensory input.
• Hearing a song and associating it with a specific memory illustrates how perception interprets sensory information.
• Gestalt principles describe how we perceive visual elements as organized patterns or wholes.
• The principle of proximity states that elements close to each other are perceived as a group.
• The principle of similarity states that similar elements are grouped together.
• Continuity affects visual perception as the eye follows a continuous path.
• Closure is the ability to perceive complete figures, even when parts are missing.
• Monocular cues are single-eye cues that help in judging depth, such as texture gradients.
• Binocular cues involve two-eye cues like retinal disparity, which help in judging the distance of objects.
• NREM 1 is characterized by light sleep and muscle relaxation.
• NREM 2 features sleep spindles and a drop in body temperature.
• NREM 3 is known as deep sleep and is associated with delta waves.
• REM sleep involves vivid dreaming and a spike in brain activity.
• The activation-synthesis theory suggests that the brain tries to make sense of random neural signals during dreaming.
• Freudian theory posits that dreams reveal unconscious desires.
• Classical conditioning is associating two stimuli to elicit a response.
• Operant conditioning is a learning process where behavior is influenced by consequences.
• Key processes in classical conditioning include acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery.
• Reinforcement increases behavior, while punishment decreases it.
• Schedules of reinforcement can be fixed or variable ratio and fixed or variable interval.
• Memory refers to encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
• Types of memory include sensory, short-term, and long-term memory.
• Sensory memory is a brief storage of sensory information.
• Short-term memory is a temporary storage system.
• Memory can be enhanced through techniques like chunking and rehearsal.
• Long-term memory is a vast storage of information over time.
• Explicit memory is the conscious recall of facts and events.
• Implicit memory is the unconscious recall of skills and tasks.
• Encoding is converting information into a storable form.
• Storage is maintaining information over time.
• Retrieval is accessing stored information when needed.
• Decay refers to memory loss over time due to non-use.
• Interference is when new or old information disrupts recall.
• False memories are incorrect recollections influenced by suggestion.
• Language and thought are intricately connected, shaping communication and problem-solving.
• Phonemes are the basic units of sound.
• Morphemes are the smallest meaningful units of language.
• Syntax refers to the rules governing sentence structure.
• Confirmation bias is favoring evidence that supports existing beliefs.
• The availability heuristic estimates likelihood based on easily recalled examples.
• Algorithms are step-by-step procedures that guarantee solutions.
• Heuristics are mental shortcuts for quicker decisions.
• Insight is a sudden realization of a solution.
• Intelligence encompasses the ability to learn, reason, and adapt.
• Spearman's general intelligence proposes a single underlying intellectual ability.
• Gardner's multiple intelligences theory identifies distinct types of intelligence.
• Cultural bias in IQ testing refers to tests favoring certain groups.
• Genetics and environment interact to shape intellectual development.
• The James-Lange theory states that emotions result from physiological responses.
• Cannon-Bard theory suggests that emotions and physiological responses occur simultaneously.
• Two-factor theory states that emotion arises from arousal and cognitive interpretation.
• Drive-reduction theory explains behaviors to reduce internal tension from unmet needs.
• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs ranks needs from basic necessities to self-actualization.
• Social psychology examines how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts.
• Conformity involves adapting behaviors to align with group norms.
• Obedience is following orders from authority figures.
• Social loafing occurs when individuals exert less effort in group tasks.
• Groupthink is the desire for group harmony, leading to poor decision-making.
• Interpersonal attraction is influenced by physical attractiveness, similarity, and proximity.
• Altruism is the selfless act of helping others.

Explore the fundamental concepts of psychology, including its goals, levels of analysis, and the importance of the scientific method. This quiz will help you understand how psychological theories are developed through observation and systematic study. Dive into the biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors that influence human behavior.