Psychology on Schizophrenia and Related Disorders
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Questions and Answers

What is characterized by an inability to motivate oneself to do something?

  • Anhedonia
  • Avolition (correct)
  • Alogia
  • Flat affect

Which criterion indicates reduced social activity and inability to build relationships?

  • Flat affect
  • Alogia
  • Anhedonia
  • Asociality (correct)

In which demographic is the onset of symptoms for schizophrenia typically earlier?

  • Women
  • Elderly
  • Children
  • Men (correct)

Which of the following is considered a key feature of attenuated psychosis syndrome?

<p>Good insight (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one possible consequence of continued symptoms of schizophrenia over time?

<p>Reduced life expectancy (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which variable symptom is least associated with schizophrenia?

<p>Fixed symptoms (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the belief that one is being observed or evaluated by others?

<p>Ideas of reference (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common risk factor affecting the prevalence of schizophrenia in developed cultures?

<p>Toxic chemicals in industrial areas (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a hallmark characteristic of schizotypal personality disorder?

<p>Excessive social anxiety (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the defining symptom of delusional disorder?

<p>One or more delusions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How long does brief psychotic disorder typically last?

<p>One day to one month (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes psychosis from other mental disorders?

<p>Extreme reality distortion and certain delusions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of delusion involves the belief that someone, often a famous person, is in love with the individual?

<p>Erotomaniac delusion (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the prevalence of schizoaffective disorder?

<p>0.3% (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT considered a positive symptom of schizophrenia?

<p>Apathy (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant genetic risk factor for developing schizophrenia?

<p>One parent with schizophrenia (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is required for a diagnosis of schizophrenia?

<p>Symptoms must be present for at least one month (A), Symptoms must be present for at least six months (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the nature of hallucinations in psychosis?

<p>Sensory experiences without external input (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between schizophreniform disorder and brief psychotic disorder?

<p>Schizophreniform lasts over six months (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is most commonly associated with schizophrenia?

<p>Dopamine (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Cotard’s syndrome?

<p>Belief that one’s body parts do not exist (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of disorganized speech?

<p>Neologisms (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does 'catatonic motor behavior' entail?

<p>Inability to move in any position (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom must be present for at least six months to help diagnose schizophrenia?

<p>Any two positive or negative symptoms (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key concept behind the dopamine theory of schizophrenia?

<p>Excessive dopamine activity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which treatment is primarily associated with the management of schizophrenia as per the dopamine theory?

<p>Dopamine antagonists (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What evidence challenges the effectiveness of dopamine antagonists in treating schizophrenia?

<p>Clozapine is a weak dopamine antagonist but is effective (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What brain structure change is associated with schizophrenia according to fMRI findings?

<p>Enlarged ventricles (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a possible early sign of schizophrenia in children?

<p>Higher rates of left-handedness (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT identified as a contributor to fetal complications linked to schizophrenia?

<p>Maternal exposure to toxins in the third trimester (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of microglia is highlighted in the theory of their dysfunction related to schizophrenia?

<p>Microglia may operate excessively and remove essential cells (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term hypofrontality refer to in the context of schizophrenia?

<p>Low activity of the frontal lobe (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor is NOT associated with the likelihood of schizophrenia recurrence?

<p>Hospitalization (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an advantage of first-generation antipsychotics?

<p>Patients are released from hospitalization (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true regarding second-generation antipsychotics?

<p>They are less likely to cause severe side effects than first-generation antipsychotics. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common side effect associated with first-generation antipsychotics?

<p>Akinesia (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following approaches is used in psychosocial treatment for schizophrenia?

<p>Token economy programs (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary disadvantage of second-generation antipsychotics?

<p>Higher chances of seizures (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What treatment combination was found to produce the highest cure rates?

<p>Drugs and education (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the goals of behavioral family treatment in psychosocial therapy?

<p>Reduce family stress to prevent relapse (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining characteristic of positive symptoms in schizophrenia?

<p>Delusions and hallucinations (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of delusion involves the belief that one's body is being controlled by an outside force?

<p>Influence delusion (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does disorganized speech in schizophrenia primarily involve?

<p>Derailment and tangential thinking (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom must be present for a minimum of one month to help diagnose schizophrenia?

<p>Florid symptoms (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is characterized by sensory experiences occurring without any external stimuli?

<p>Hallucinations (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT commonly classified as a positive symptom of schizophrenia?

<p>Reduced emotional expression (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'catatonic motor behavior' refer to in schizophrenia?

<p>Maintaining awkward positions for extended periods (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurological feature complicates research on schizophrenia?

<p>Heterogeneous characteristics in diagnosis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining characteristic of schizoaffective disorder?

<p>Combination of schizophrenia and an affective disorder (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What differentiates brief psychotic disorder from other psychotic disorders?

<p>It resolves on its own and lasts only 1 day to 1 month. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is characterized by a lack of emotional expression?

<p>Flat affect (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of delusion involves the belief that an individual is being pursued or targeted?

<p>Persecution (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term describes the inability to experience pleasure and joy?

<p>Anhedonia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the prognosis of schizophreniform disorder?

<p>It has a good prognosis and is resolved on its own. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which age group is typically associated with an earlier onset of schizophrenia symptoms?

<p>Late teens for men (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between delusional disorder and schizophrenia?

<p>Individuals with delusional disorder function well outside their delusion. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage chance of developing schizophrenia is associated with having two parents diagnosed?

<p>46% (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic feature of attenuated psychosis syndrome?

<p>Good insight (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the consequences of prolonged symptoms of schizophrenia?

<p>Higher likelihood of hospitalization (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is considered a significant contributor to the etiology of schizophrenia?

<p>Family heritability is a strong risk factor. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes a delusion categorized as erotomaniac?

<p>Feeling that someone is in love with them. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor has been suggested to influence the prevalence of schizophrenia in developed cultures?

<p>Industrial chemical exposure (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the typical course of schizophrenia symptoms?

<p>Progressive worsening over time (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is likely to happen to individuals with untreated symptoms of schizophrenia?

<p>Encounter worsened conditions and health risks (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a recognized disadvantage of first-generation antipsychotics?

<p>Higher chance of seizure (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a major benefit of second-generation antipsychotics compared to first-generation?

<p>Reduced risk of suicide (A), Lower instances of relapse (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of psychosocial treatment uses tokens as a reward for positive behaviors?

<p>Operant conditioning (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about the likelihood of schizophrenia recurrence is correct?

<p>Stressful life events can increase the likelihood. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What significant problem is associated with the non-compliance of patients with first-generation antipsychotics?

<p>Chronic side effects lead to discontinuation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which treatment combination had the highest cure rates for schizophrenia according to studies?

<p>Education with drugs (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common outcome of using behavioral family treatment?

<p>Reduction in family stress on the patient (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an important side effect associated with second-generation antipsychotics?

<p>Weight gain (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between dopamine levels and the two-factor theory of schizophrenia?

<p>Insufficient dopamine in pre-frontal areas combined with excessive dopamine in striatal areas. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of the glutamate theory of schizophrenia asserts a potential cause for its dysfunction?

<p>Dysfunction in GABA activity or excessive dopamine. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is hypofrontality in the context of schizophrenia?

<p>Low activity of the frontal lobe. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the potential consequences of brain structure changes in individuals with schizophrenia?

<p>They may occur due to medications or lifestyle changes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is associated with a higher likelihood of developing schizophrenia in children?

<p>Slower to reach developmental milestones. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common consequence of complications during pregnancy that may affect schizophrenia risk?

<p>Oxygen deprivation (hypoxia). (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do microglia play according to the dysfunction theory related to schizophrenia?

<p>They remove damaged cells but may overactive in frontal lobes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary challenge regarding the effectiveness of dopamine antagonists in treating schizophrenia?

<p>They do not change symptoms immediately and may not reduce negative symptoms. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Psychosis

Extreme distortion of reality, characterized by delusions and hallucinations.

Delusions

Fixed false beliefs despite evidence to the contrary; disorders of thought content.

Hallucinations

Sensory experiences without external stimuli; sensory phenomena without external input.

Schizophrenia

A serious mental disorder characterized by positive and negative symptoms, including delusions, hallucinations, disorganized thinking, and abnormal behaviors.

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Positive Symptoms (Schizophrenia)

Distortions or excesses of normal functioning, such as delusions, hallucinations, and disorganized thoughts/speech/behaviors.

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Negative Symptoms (Schizophrenia)

Deficits or reductions in normal behaviors, such as diminished emotional expression, reduced speech, and lack of motivation.

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Disorganized thinking/speech

A symptom of schizophrenia characterized by illogical and jumbled thoughts and communication patterns.

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Disorganized behaviour

A symptom of schizophrenia involving odd or unusual behaviors; abnormal, erratic movements, actions, or reactions in daily life.

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Schizotypal personality disorder

A personality disorder characterized by unusual thoughts, behaviors, and social interactions. Individuals with schizotypal personality disorder often have difficulty forming close relationships.

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Schizoid personality disorder

A personality disorder characterized by social isolation and detachment, lack of interest in relationships, and limited emotional expression.

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Delusional disorder

A mental disorder characterized by fixed, false beliefs that persist despite evidence to the contrary. Individuals with delusional disorder often function well otherwise.

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Erotomaniac Delusion

A type of delusion where the individual believes that another person, usually someone famous or of higher status, is in love with them.

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Grandiose Delusion

A type of delusion where the individual believes they have exceptional abilities, wealth, or fame.

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Brief psychotic disorder

A mental disorder characterized by short-lived psychotic symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and behavior. These symptoms usually resolve on their own.

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Schizophreniform disorder

A mental disorder similar to schizophrenia but with a shorter duration of symptoms (less than six months). It often has a good prognosis.

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Schizoaffective disorder

A mental disorder combining symptoms of schizophrenia and mood disorders such as bipolar or major depression. It can be challenging to diagnose.

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What is Avolition?

A symptom of schizophrenia characterized by an inability to initiate or persist in goal-directed activities. Individuals with avolition lack motivation, interest, and drive.

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Explain Alogia.

A symptom of schizophrenia where the individual has a significant reduction in speech output and content. This typically involves short, empty replies and difficulty expressing thoughts coherently.

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What is Anhedonia?

A core symptom of schizophrenia characterized by an inability to experience pleasure or joy in things that were normally enjoyable. This can impact a wide range of activities.

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What is Asociality?

A symptom of schizophrenia where individuals withdraw from social interactions and find it difficult to form and maintain relationships. This can lead to isolation and loneliness.

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What is the impact of Schizophrenia on employment?

Schizophrenia heavily impacts employment. Most individuals with the condition struggle to hold jobs due to disruptions in cognitive function, emotional regulation, and social interaction.

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What is Attenuated Psychosis Syndrome?

A milder form of psychosis, featuring distorted thinking without significant functional impairment. Individuals often have good insight and respond well to medication.

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What is Schizotypal Personality Disorder?

A mental disorder characterized by unusual thoughts, perceptions, and behaviors that may be considered eccentric. Individuals with this disorder have difficulty forming close relationships and may experience social anxiety.

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What is a major difference between Schizotypal Personality Disorder and Schizophrenia?

Schizotypal Personality Disorder is a less severe, more circumscribed form compared to Schizophrenia, characterized by less pronounced and debilitating symptoms. Individuals with Schizotypal Personality Disorder typically retain a better sense of reality.

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Dopamine Theory

A theory suggesting that schizophrenia is caused by an excess of dopamine.

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Two Factor Theory

Proposed that schizophrenia involves both excessive dopamine in certain brain regions (striatal areas) and insufficient dopamine in others (pre-frontal cortex).

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Glutamate Theory

Suggests that schizophrenia is caused by dysfunction in glutamate activity, possibly due to problems with GABA or excessive dopamine.

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Hypofrontality

Reduced activity in the frontal lobe of the brain, often observed in individuals with schizophrenia.

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Enlarged Ventricles

Larger than normal spaces in the brain filled with cerebrospinal fluid, often associated with schizophrenia.

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Neurodevelopmental Model

This model proposes that schizophrenia originates from disruptions in early brain development, often during childhood and adolescence.

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Birth Complications

These complications, such as premature birth or lack of oxygen during delivery, can increase the risk of developing schizophrenia.

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Microglia Dysfunction

This theory suggests that overactive microglia (immune cells in the brain) can damage essential cells, contributing to schizophrenia.

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What is the role of stressful life events in schizophrenia?

Stressful life events are not a cause of schizophrenia, but they can increase the likelihood of relapse in those already diagnosed.

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What is the influence of family processes on schizophrenia?

While family dynamics don't cause schizophrenia, a hostile, critical, or over-controlling family environment can contribute to relapse.

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What is the purpose of first-generation antipsychotics?

First-generation antipsychotics are used mainly to manage positive symptoms of schizophrenia, such as hallucinations and delusions. They were instrumental in releasing patients from hospitalization.

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What are the downsides of first-generation antipsychotics?

First-generation antipsychotics often fail to address negative symptoms and can lead to significant side effects like movement problems, and Parkinson's.

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What are the advantages of second-generation antipsychotics?

Second-generation antipsychotics offer a more comprehensive approach, addressing negative symptoms, reducing side effects, and lowering relapse rates.

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What are the drawbacks of second-generation antipsychotics?

Second-generation antipsychotics can have side effects such as weight gain, increased seizure risk, and immune system dysfunction.

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What is the goal of token economy programs?

Token economy programs use behavioral principles to shape desired behaviors in individuals with schizophrenia by rewarding positive actions with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges.

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What is the purpose of behavioral family treatment for schizophrenia?

Behavioral family treatment aims to reduce expressed emotions within the family, creating a more supportive environment for individuals with schizophrenia and minimizing relapse.

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What's the difference between Schizophreniform and Schizophrenia?

Schizophreniform disorder shares similar symptoms with schizophrenia, but lasts for less than 6 months.

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What are the key features of Schizoaffective disorder?

A combination of schizophrenia and a mood disorder (bipolar, depression), making diagnosis tricky.

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What makes genetic contributions significant in schizophrenia?

Family history plays a strong role, with higher chances of development if a parent or sibling has schizophrenia.

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What is the role of dopamine in schizophrenia?

Schizophrenia involves abnormal brain structures and neurochemical imbalances, particularly in dopamine.

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Flat Affect

A lack of emotional expression, appearing emotionless or indifferent. It's like having a poker face all the time.

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Avolition

The inability to initiate or persist in goal-directed activities. It's like lacking the motivation to get anything done.

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Alogia

A significant reduction in speech, often with brief, empty replies or difficulty expressing thoughts coherently. It's like having a hard time finding the words to say what you mean.

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Anhedonia

The inability to experience pleasure or joy in things that were normally enjoyable. It's like the world has lost all its color.

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Asociality

A reduced social activity and difficulty forming and maintaining relationships. It's like withdrawing from the world.

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Prodromal Period

The early stage of schizophrenia, characterized by subtle changes in behavior and thought patterns. It's like the storm clouds gathering before the rain.

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Attenuated Psychosis Syndrome

A milder form of psychosis with distortions in thinking and reality, but with good insight and manageable symptoms. It's like a lighter version of schizophrenia.

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Ideas of Reference

A belief that unrelated events or objects are somehow related to the person, often in a negative way. It's like feeling like everyone is talking about you.

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What is psychosis?

A severe mental state marked by an extreme disconnect from reality, often involving delusions (false beliefs) and hallucinations (sensory experiences without external stimuli).

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Schizophrenia: Key Diagnostic Feature

The presence of both positive and negative symptoms of psychosis for at least six months.

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Delusions: Types?

Fixed false beliefs resistant to evidence. Common types include persecution, reference, influence, grandeur, and Cotard's syndrome (believing one doesn't exist).

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Hallucinations: Sensory Experiences

Sensory phenomena without external stimuli. Auditory (hearing voices) is most common, followed by visual, olfactory (smells), and gustatory (taste).

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Disorganized Speech (Thinking)

Characterized by incoherent, illogical, and rambling speech. Examples include derailment (shifting topics), tangentiality (going off on tangents), and neologisms (inventing new words).

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Disorganized Behavior (Schizophrenia)

Abnormal and unpredictable behaviors including childlike silliness, agitation, and catatonic motor behavior (immobility or waxy flexibility).

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Negative Symptoms: What are they?

Deficits in typical functions. They include avolition (lack of motivation), alogia (reduced speech), anhedonia (inability to experience pleasure), and asociality (social withdrawal).

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Schizophrenia: Heterogenous Diagnosis

Individuals with schizophrenia can display a wide range of abilities and impairments, making research challenging. Some may excel in specific areas while struggling in others.

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Stressful life events in schizophrenia

Stressful life events do not cause schizophrenia, but they can trigger relapses in individuals who already have the disorder.

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Family processes and schizophrenia

While family dynamics don't cause schizophrenia, a hostile, critical, or over-controlling family environment can increase the risk of relapse.

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First-generation antipsychotics

First-generation antipsychotics primarily manage positive symptoms of schizophrenia (hallucinations, delusions), and were crucial in releasing patients from hospitals.

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Downsides of first-generation antipsychotics

They often don't address negative symptoms (lack of motivation, reduced speech), and have significant side effects like movement problems and Parkinson's.

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Second-generation antipsychotics

Second-generation antipsychotics offer a more comprehensive approach, managing both positive and negative symptoms, reducing side effects, and lowering relapse rates.

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Drawbacks of second-generation antipsychotics

They can have side effects like weight gain, increased seizure risk, and immune system dysfunction.

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Token economy programs

Token economy programs use behavioral principles to shape desired behaviors in individuals with schizophrenia by rewarding positive actions with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges.

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Behavioral family treatment for schizophrenia

Behavioral family treatment aims to reduce expressed emotions within the family, creating a more supportive environment for individuals with schizophrenia and minimizing relapse.

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Study Notes

Psychotic Disorders

  • Psychosis is characterized by extreme reality distortion, certain delusions, and hallucinations.
  • Sensory phenomena are present, but without external input.
  • Schizophrenia and related disorders are a range of conditions; schizotypal personality disorder, delusional disorder, brief psychotic episode, and schizophreniform disorder are part of the spectrum.
  • Schizophrenia is the most prevalent disorder within the spectrum.
  • Schizoaffective disorder is another term used for schizophrenia, and can be hard to initially distinguish.

Diagnosing Schizophrenia

  • Well-developed delusions and hallucinations are key diagnostic criteria.
  • Patients need only two positive and two negative symptoms of psychosis.
  • Onset is typically in adolescence or young adulthood, but onset can vary.
    • Men typically have onset earlier than women.
  • Symptoms must be present for at least one month consistently.
  • Positive and negative symptoms should have persisted at least 6 months.
  • Key characteristics include heterogeneous presentation; individuals may show high intelligence and functionality in specific areas while demonstrating dysfunction in others.
    • Heterogeneity makes research difficult.

Positive Symptoms of Psychosis

  • Delusions: Fixed beliefs despite contradictory evidence. Subtypes include persecution, reference, influence, bodily concerns (thought insertion or broadcasting), Cotard's syndrome (belief body parts do not exist), and Capgras syndrome (belief people have been replaced).
  • Hallucinations: Sensory events without any external input. Commonly auditory. Visual, olfactory, and gustatory are also possible.
  • Disorganized speech and thinking: Derailment, tangential thinking, incoherence, neologisms (creating new words), and clang associations (words that rhyme) are examples.
  • Disorganized behavior: Includes unusual behaviors such as childlike silliness, agitation, catatonic motor behavior (wax-like flexibility), and unusual behaviors, including public masturbation.

Negative Symptoms of Psychosis

  • Flat affect: Lack of emotional expression.
  • Avolition: Inability to initiate or persist at goal-directed activities.
  • Alogia: Poverty of speech.
  • Anhedonia: Inability to experience pleasure.
  • Asociality: Reduced social engagement.

Attenuated Psychosis Syndrome

  • Symptoms include distortions in how reality is perceived, delusions, and hallucinations.
  • Symptoms may also include insight, prodromal stage, and appropriate management with medication; individuals often respond well to treatment .

Schizotypal Personality Disorder

  • Marked by social and interpersonal deficits.
  • These deficits manifest in at least 5 areas, including ideas of reference, unusual beliefs or magical thinking that affects daily life, unusual perceptual experiences, and social isolation.
    • This condition is less severe, and more circumscribed than schizophrenia.

Delusional Disorder

  • One or more delusions that have persisted for at least a month.
  • Individuals demonstrate relatively normal functioning in areas outside the persistent delusions.
  • Examples include erotomania, grandiose, jealous, persecutory, somatic, or mixed types.
    • Usually associated with late onset (later in life).

Brief Psychotic Disorder

  • Symptoms include delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, or disorganized behavior.
  • Symptoms last for 1 day to 1 month.
  • This is distinguished by its brief duration compared to other conditions.
    • Has a relatively good prognosis.

Schizophreniform Disorder

  • Symptoms are similar to schizophrenia, but the duration is shorter (at least 1 month, but less than 6 months).
  • Diagnosis requires at least one month of symptoms and full criteria.
  • Outcome often resolves, good prognosis.

Schizoaffective Disorder

  • A combination of schizophrenia and an affective disorder (e.g., bipolar disorder or depression).
  • Difficult to diagnose initially, requires careful tracking of symptoms over time; differentiating from other conditions is hard initially and requires careful monitoring and attention.

Etiology of Schizophrenia

  • Genetic factors play a significant role, with a higher likelihood in identical twins.
  • Biochemical factors like dopamine are important contributors; excessive dopamine in certain regions, and insufficient in others.
  • Microglia overactivity potentially damages essential brain cells.
  • Prenatal and perinatal complications, environmental stressors, and toxic exposures also contribute to risk factors.

Brain Structure and Function

  • Reduced activity in frontal areas and enlarged ventricles are common findings.
  • These changes are correlated with schizophrenia but may be caused or affected by medications and lifestyle changes.

Contemporary Models

  • Neurodevelopmental model emphasizes cortical development differences in schizophrenia patients.
  • Birth complications like premature birth, hypoxia, etc., and prenatal stressors are associated with increased risk.
  • A theory of microglia dysfunction highlights the role of overactive cells in removing essential brain cells, associated with deficits in GABA and glutamate functions.

Multiple Hit Model

  • Various factors (genetic, viral, environmental stressors) converge to disrupt brain development, leading to schizophrenia.
  • This model emphasizes the interaction between multiple factors; a complex interplay of various contributing factors.

Psycho-social Contributions to Schizophrenia

  • Stressful life events and family processes may increase the likelihood of recurrence or affect the progression but are not the direct cause.
  • Individuals with schizophrenia are more susceptible to negative reactions from others in stressful situations.

Treatments

  • First-line treatments are primarily biochemical interventions that target positive symptoms (acute symptoms)
  • Advantages of first-generation antipsychotics include rapid symptom relief.
  • Disadvantages include side effects like motor side effects, and negative symptoms are not effectively treated.
  • Second-generation antipsychotics are viewed as more effective in treating negative symptoms but have other side effects.
  • Psychosocial therapies, such as operant conditioning and behavioral family treatments, aim to promote healthy behaviors and support patients.

Cognitive Therapy

  • Cognitive therapies aim at improving symptom insights and thought patterns as a method of treatment, though not a cure.
  • It involves identifying and managing maladaptive beliefs and thinking patterns underlying delusions or hallucinations.
  • Effectiveness in reducing symptoms, but not a complete cure.

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